Tài liệu Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook docx

Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook

Mendez / Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook prelims Final Proof page i 31.10.2006 9:35pm

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Specialty Optical Fibers

Handbook

ALEXIS ME´ NDEZ

MCH Engineering, LLC, Alameda, California

T. F. MORSE

Photonics Center, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO

SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

Mendez / Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook prelims Final Proof page iii 31.10.2006 9:35pm

Academic Press in an imprint of Elsevier

30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA

525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA

84 Theobald’s Road, London WCIX 8RR, UK

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright
2007, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic

or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,

without permission in writing from the publisher.

Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in

Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333, E-mail: [email protected].

You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://elsevier.com), by

selecting ‘‘Customer Support’’ and then ‘‘Obtaining Permissions.’’

Library of Congress Cataloging-in Publication Data

Application Submitted

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 13: 978-0-12-369406-5

ISBN 10: 0-12-369406-X

For information on all Elsevier Academic Press publications

visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com

Printed in the United States of America

06 07 08 09 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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To my wife Shiva

for her unconditional love, support, and patience

A.M.

‘‘Under the shade of your tresses,

how softly slept my heart,

intoxicated and lovely,

so peaceful and so free . . . ’’

RUMI

To Edelgard

for her patience, wisdom, and love.

T.F.M.

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Contents

Dedication v

Editors xxiii

List of Contributors xxv

Preface xxxvii

1 Specialty Optical Fiber Market Overview 1

Stephen Montgomery

1.1 Market Overview 1

1.1.1 Production Versus Consumption 1

1.1.2 Rapidly Growing Need to Use Fiber Optic Sensors 2

1.1.3 Weapon System Development 3

1.1.4 100–1000
Improvements in Performance 3

1.1.5 High Cost of Functionality 4

1.1.6 Multiple Features in the Same Specialty Fibers 4

1.2 Specialty Optical Fibers: A Few Selected Examples 4

1.2.1 Fluoride Fiber 4

1.2.2 Tellurite Fiber 5

1.2.3 Bismuth-Doped Fiber 5

1.2.4 Polarizing Fiber 6

1.2.5 Photonic Crystal Fiber—Holey Fibers 7

1.2.6 Dispersion-Compensating Fiber 8

1.2.7 High-Index Fiber 11

1.2.8 Polarization-Maintaining Fiber 11

1.2.9 Photosensitive Fiber 13

1.2.10 Erbium-Doped Fiber 13

1.3 Conclusions 17

2 Light-Guiding Fundamentals and Fiber Design 19

Robert Lingle, Jr., David W. Peckham, Alan McCurdy,

and Jinkee Kim

2.1 Introduction 19

2.2 Physical Structure of a Telecommunications Optical Fiber 20

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vii

2.3 Linear Lightwave Propagation in an Optical Fiber 20

2.3.1 Electromagnetic Preliminaries 20

2.3.2 Intuition from the Slab Waveguide 22

2.3.3 Optical Fiber: A Cylindrical Waveguide 24

2.3.4 The Linearly Polarized Mode Set LPlm 25

2.3.5 Finite Element Analysis for Waveguide Calculations 27

2.4 Working Definitions of Cutoff Wavelength 29

2.4.1 Introduction 29

2.4.2 Theoretical Cutoff Wavelength 29

2.4.3 Effective Cutoff Wavelengths 29

2.5 Impact of Profile Design on Macrobending Losses 32

2.5.1 The Depressed Cladding Fiber Design 32

2.5.2 Phenomenology of Macrobending Loss 34

2.6 Fiber Attenuation Loss 36

2.7 Origins of Chromatic Dispersion 38

2.7.1 Introduction 38

2.7.2 Material Dispersion 38

2.7.3 Waveguide Dispersion 42

2.8 Polarization Mode Dispersion 45

2.8.1 Overview 45

2.8.2 Background 46

2.8.3 Modeling and Simulation 48

2.8.4 Control of PMD in Fiber Manufacturing 49

2.8.5 Measurement of PMD 51

2.8.6 Fiber-to-Cable-to-Field PMD Mapping 53

2.9 Microbending Loss 55

2.9.1 Microbending 55

2.10 Fiber Nonlinearities 60

2.10.1 Overview 60

2.10.2 Background 61

References 65

3 Overview of Materials and Fabrication Technologies 69

John B. MacChesney, Ryan Bise, and Alexis Me´ndez

3.1 Double-Crucible Technique 69

3.2 Vapor-Deposition Techniques 70

3.3 Outside Vapor Deposition 71

3.4 Vertical Axial Deposition 73

3.5 Direct Nanoparticle Deposition 75

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3.6 Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition 77

3.6.1 Chemical Equilibria: Dopant Incorporation 78

3.6.2 Purification from Hydroxyl Contamination 80

3.6.3 Thermophoresis 80

3.7 Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition 82

3.8 Sol-Gel Processes 83

3.8.1 Alkoxide Sol-Gel Processing 83

3.8.2 Colloidal Sol-Gel Processing 84

3.9 Sol-Gel Microstructure Fiber Fabrication 86

3.10 Fiber Drawing 88

Acknowledgments 91

References 91

4 Optical Fiber Coatings 95

Steven R. Schmid and Anthony F. Toussaint

4.1 Introduction 95

4.2 Early History of Coatings for Optical Fiber 96

4.3 Evolution of Optical Fibers and Protective Coatings 97

4.3.1 Coating Contributions to Microbending

Minimization 97

4.3.2 Glass Fiber Fracture Mechanics and Coating

Contributions to Fiber Strength Retention 99

4.3.3 Durability of Fiber Optic Coatings 100

4.4 Cabling of Optical Fibers 102

4.5 Specialty Coatings 103

4.6 Basics of Optical Fiber Chemistry 103

4.6.1 Oligomers 103

4.6.2 Monomers 105

4.6.3 Photoinitiators 105

4.6.4 Adhesion Promoters 105

4.6.5 Other Additives 106

4.7 Application of Coatings on the Draw Tower 108

4.7.1 Coating Cure Speed Measurement Techniques 110

4.7.2 Cured Properties of Coatings on Fiber 113

4.7.3 Test Methods for UV-Curable Liquids

and UV-Cured Films 115

4.7.4 Coating Adhesion 117

4.8 Summary 117

Acknowledgments 118

References 118

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Contents ix

5 Single-Mode Fibers for Communications 123

Robert Lingle, Jr., David W. Peckham, Kai H. Chang,

and Alan McCurdy

5.1 Introduction 123

5.2 System Impairments Influencing Fiber Design 124

5.2.1 Limitations from Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio 124

5.2.2 Limitations from Intersymbol Interference 125

5.2.3 Limitations from Nonlinearity 126

5.2.4 Limitations from Amplifier Technology 127

5.2.5 Can Fiber Design Be Used to Optimize

a Transmission System? 127

5.3 Overview of ITU Standards Fiber Categories 129

5.4 Optical Fibers for Reduced Attenuation 132

5.4.1 Pure Silica Core Fiber 133

5.4.2 Zero Water Peak Fiber 133

5.5 Optical Fiber Design Principles for Wideband

and High Bit Rate Transmission 141

5.5.1 Precise Dispersion Compensation 142

5.5.2 Dispersion Compensation Fiber Technology 142

5.5.3 Full-Band Dispersion Compensation 143

5.5.4 Requirement for Low Residual Dispersion 144

5.5.5 Factors Affecting Nonlinearity 145

5.5.6 Impairments Affecting Raman Amplification 147

5.5.7 Systems Implications of Tx Fiber PMD 147

5.5.8 Summary of Design Principles 148

5.6 Design of Nonzero Dispersion Fibers 148

5.6.1 Fiber Transmission Parameter Tradeoffs 149

5.6.2 Realizability, Manufacturability, and Scalability 150

5.6.3 Low-Dispersion NZDFs 152

5.6.4 Medium-Dispersion NZDFs 155

5.7 A New Paradigm in Transmission Line Design 158

References 159

6 Specialty Single-Mode Fibers 165

Lars-Erik Nilsson, A˚

sa Claesson, Walter Margulis,

and Pierre-Yves Fonjallaz

6.1 Introduction 165

6.2 Macrohole Fiber 166

6.2.1 Microfluidic Devices 168

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6.3 Fibers with Internal Electrodes 169

6.3.1 Electrodes 170

6.3.2 Applications 173

6.4 Multicore Fibers and Components 175

6.4.1 Coupled Cores 176

6.4.2 Uncoupled Cores 180

6.4.3 Manufacturing Multicore Fibers 182

6.5 Fibers for High-Temperature–Resistant Gratings 185

6.6 Summary 188

References 188

7 Rare Earth-Doped Fibers 195

David J. DiGiovanni, Roman Shubochkin, T. F. Morse,

and Borut Lenardic

7.1 Introduction 195

7.2 Motivation 196

7.3 Host Glasses for Rare Earth Ions 198

7.4 Fabrication of Rare Earth-Doped Fibers 200

7.4.1 Overview of Optical Fiber Fabrication 200

7.4.2 Incorporation of Rare Earth Elements 202

7.4.3 Summary of Rare Earth-Doped

Fabrication Techniques 210

7.5 Erbium-Doped Fiber 210

7.5.1 Principles of Operation 211

7.5.2 Fiber Design Issues 213

7.5.3 Fiber Composition Issues 216

7.5.4 Short Wavelength Amplifiers 219

7.6 The Co-Doped Er/Yb System 222

7.7 Double-Clad Fiber 223

7.7.1 Limitations of Fiber Lasers 226

7.7.2 Methods to Improve Performance 227

7.8 Conclusion 237

References 237

8 Polarization Maintaining Fibers 243

Chris Emslie

8.1 What is a Polarization Maintaining Fiber? 243

8.2 Why Use PM Fibers?—Applications 244

8.2.1 Interferometry 244

8.2.2 The Fiber Optic Gyroscope 245

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8.2.3 Coherent Communications 245

8.2.4 Integrated Optics 246

8.2.5 Laser Doppler Anemometry and Velocimetry 247

8.2.6 EDFA Pump Combiners, Reflection-Suppression

Schemes, Current Sensing, and Optical Coherence

Tomography 249

8.3 How Do PM Fibers Work? 249

8.4 PM Fiber Types: Stress and Form Birefringent 250

8.4.1 Stress-Birefringent Fibers: Bowtie, PANDA,

and Elliptical Jacket 250

8.4.2 Elliptical Core, Form-Birefringent Fiber 253

8.4.3 Microstructure (‘‘Holey’’) Fibers 254

8.4.4 Polarizing Fiber 254

8.5 PM Fiber Fabrication Methods 256

8.5.1 Bowtie Fibers 256

8.5.2 PANDA Fiber 258

8.5.3 Elliptical Jacket Fiber 258

8.5.4 Elliptical Core, Form-Birefringent Fiber 260

8.5.5 Microstructure (‘‘Holey’’) Fibers 261

8.6 Key Performance Parameters 262

8.6.1 Attenuation (a) 262

8.6.2 Numerical Aperture (NA) 263

8.6.3 Is There a Connection Between Polarization

Maintenance and Attenuation? 264

8.6.4 Cutoff Wavelength (lc) 264

8.6.5 Mode-Field Diameter (MFD) 265

8.6.6 Beat Length (Lp) 267

8.6.7 Extinction Ratio (ER) 269

8.6.8 H-Parameter 270

8.6.9 Effect of Test Conditions and Environment

on Polarization Maintaining Performance 270

8.7 Mechanical and Lifetime Properties 273

8.7.1 Strength Paradox I: Fragile Preforms Make

Exceptionally Strong Fibers 273

8.7.2 Strength Paradox II: Thin Fibers Can Be Stronger

Than Thicker Ones 275

References 276

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9 Photosensitive Fibers 279

Andre´ Croteau and Anne Claire Jacob Poulin

9.1 Introduction 279

9.2 Design and Fabrication 281

9.3 Standard Numerical Aperture Fibers 282

9.3.1 Standard Single-Mode Fibers 283

9.3.2 Boron-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers 283

9.3.3 Antimony-Doped Fibers 286

9.3.4 Tin-Doped Fibers 287

9.4 High Numerical Aperture 287

9.4.1 Heavily Ge-Doped Silica Optical Fibers 288

9.4.2 Tin-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers 289

9.4.3 Indium-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers 290

9.5 Cladding Mode Suppression 291

9.6 Rare Earth-Doped Photosensitive Fibers 293

9.6.1 Germano-Alumino-Silicate Glass Host Core 294

9.6.2 Confined Core 297

9.6.3 Photosensitive-Clad 300

9.6.4 Confined Core and Photosensitive Clad 300

9.6.5 Antimony-Doped Alumino-Silicate 301

9.7 Polarization Maintaining 302

9.8 Other Photosensitive Fiber Types 303

9.8.1 Polymer Optical Fibers 304

9.8.2 Fluoride Glass 308

9.8.3 Heavily P-Doped Silica Fibers 308

9.9 Conclusions 309

Acknowledgments 310

References 310

10 Hollow-Core Fibers 315

Steven A. Jacobs, Burak Temelkuran, Ori Weisberg, Mihai

Ibanescu, Steven G. Johnson, and Marin Soljac˘ic´

10.1 Introduction 315

10.1.1 Wave-Guiding by Total Internal Reflection 316

10.1.2 Wave-Guiding by Reflection Off a Conducting

Boundary 317

10.1.3 Wave-Guiding by Photonic Band-Gaps 318

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10.2 Light Transmission in Hollow-Core Fiber 320

10.2.1 Hollow Metal Waveguides 323

10.2.2 Wave-Guiding in Bragg and OmniGuide Fibers 324

10.2.3 Loss Mechanisms in OmniGuide Fibers 327

10.2.4 Wave-Guiding in 2D Photonic-Crystal Fiber 341

10.3 Applications of Hollow-Core Fibers 347

10.3.1 Hollow-Core Fibers for Medical Applications 347

10.3.2 Potential Telecom Applications 349

10.3.3 Hollow-Core Fibers as Gas Cells 350

10.3.4 Applications of Hollow-Core Fibers for

Remote Sensing 351

10.3.5 Industrial Applications 351

10.4 Hollow-Core Fiber Manufacturing 352

10.4.1 OmniGuide Fiber Manufacturing 352

10.4.2 Techniques Used in the Manufacture

of Other Hollow-Core Fibers 355

10.5 Conclusions 357

References 357

11 Silica Nanofibers and Subwavelength-Diameter Fibers 361

Limin Tong and Eric Mazur

11.1 Nanofiber at a Glance 361

11.2 Introduction 361

11.3 Modeling of Single-Mode Wave-Guiding

Properties of Silica Nanofibers 362

11.3.1 Basic Model 363

11.3.2 Power Distribution: Fraction of Power

Inside the Core and Effective Diameter 367

11.3.3 Group Velocity and Waveguide Dispersion 372

11.4 Fabrication and Microscopic Characterization of Silica

Nanofibers 374

11.4.1 Two-Step Taper Drawing of Silica Nanofibers 375

11.4.2 Electron Microscope Study of Silica Nanofibers 377

11.5 Properties of Silica Nanofibers 381

11.5.1 Micromanipulation and Mechanical Properties 381

11.5.2 Wave-Guiding and Optical Loss 385

11.6 Applications and Potential Uses of Silica Nanofibers 388

11.6.1 Microscale and Nanoscale Photonic Components 389

11.6.2 Nanofiber Optical Sensors 394

11.6.3 Additional Applications 396

References 396

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