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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

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While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, The Gale Group does not guarantee the accuracy

of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication,

service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction

of the publisher will be corrected in future editions.

This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and

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Copyright © 2001

Gale Group, Inc.

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Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535

ISBN 0-7876-5283-0

ISSN 1099-7326

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INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

ADVISORY BOARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

OBITUARIES ......................... xiii

TEXT................................. 1

HOW TO USE THE INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

CONTENTS

v

The study of biography has always held an impor￾tant, if not explicitly stated, place in school curricula.

The absence in schools of a class specifically devoted

to studying the lives of the giants of human history be￾lies the focus most courses have always had on people.

From ancient times to the present, the world has been

shaped by the decisions, philosophies, inventions, dis￾coveries, artistic creations, medical breakthroughs, and

written works of its myriad personalities. Librarians,

teachers, and students alike recognize that our lives are

immensely enriched when we learn about those indi￾viduals who have made their mark on the world we live

in today.

Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement, Vol￾ume 21, provides biographical information on 200 in￾dividuals not covered in the 17-volume second edition

of Encyclopedia of World Biography (EWB) and its sup￾plements, Volumes 18, 19 and 20. Like other volumes

in the EWB series, this supplement represents a unique,

comprehensive source for biographical information on

those people who, for their contributions to human cul￾ture and society, have reputations that stand the test of

time. Each original article ends with a bibliographic sec￾tion. There is also an index to names and subjects, which

cumulates all persons appearing as main entries in the

EWB second edition, the Volume 18, 19 and 20 sup￾plements, and this supplement—nearly 7,800 people!

Articles. Arranged alphabetically following the

letter-by-letter convention (spaces and hyphens have

been ignored), the articles begin with the full name of

the person profiled in large, bold type. Next is a bold￾faced, descriptive paragraph that includes birth and

death years in parentheses. It provides a capsule iden￾tification and a statement of the person’s significance.

The essay that follows is approximately 2000 words in

length and offers a substantial treatment of the person’s

life. Some of the essays proceed chronologically while

others confine biographical data to a paragraph or two

and move on to a consideration and evaluation of the

subject’s work. Where very few biographical facts are

known, the article is necessarily devoted to an analysis

of the subject’s contribution.

Following the essay is a bibliographic section

arranged by source type. Citations include books, peri￾odicals and online Internet addresses for World Wide

Web pages, where current information can be found.

Portraits accompany many of the articles and pro￾vide either an authentic likeness, contemporaneous with

the subject, or a later representation of artistic merit. For

artists, occasionally self-portraits have been included.

Of the ancient figures, there are depictions from coins,

engravings, and sculptures; of the moderns, there are

many portrait photographs.

Index. The EWB Supplement index is a useful key

to the encyclopedia. Persons, places, battles, treaties,

institutions, buildings, inventions, books, works of art,

ideas, philosophies, styles, movements—all are indexed

for quick reference just as in a general encyclopedia.

The index entry for a person includes a brief identifica￾tion with birth and death dates and is cumulative so

that any person for whom an article was written who

appears in the second edition of EWB (volumes 1–16)

and its supplements (volumes 18–21) can be located.

The subject terms within the index, however, apply

only to volume 21. Every index reference includes the

title of the article to which the reader is being directed

as well as the volume and page numbers.

Because EWB Supplement, Volume 21, is an ency￾clopedia of biography, its index differs in important

ways from the indexes to other encyclopedias. Basi￾cally, this is an index of people, and that fact has sev￾eral interesting consequences. First, the information to

which the index refers the reader on a particular topic

is always about people associated with that topic. Thus

the entry ‘Quantum theory (physics)’ lists articles on

INTRODUCTION

vii

people associated with quantum theory. Each article

may discuss a person’s contribution to quantum theory,

but no single article or group of articles is intended to

provide a comprehensive treatment of quantum theory

as such. Second, the index is rich in classified entries.

All persons who are subjects of articles in the encyclo￾pedia, for example, are listed in one or more classifica￾tions in the index—abolitionists, astronomers, engi￾neers, philosophers, zoologists, etc.

The index, together with the biographical articles,

make EWB Supplement an enduring and valuable

source for biographical information. As school course

work changes to reflect advances in technology and fur￾ther revelations about the universe, the life stories of the

people who have risen above the ordinary and earned

a place in the annals of human history will continue to

fascinate students of all ages.

We Welcome Your Suggestions. Mail your com￾ments and suggestions for enhancing and improving the

Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement to:

The Editors

Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement

Gale Group

27500 Drake Road

Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535

Phone: (800) 347-4253

viii INTRODUCTION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY

ix

John B. Ruth

Library Director

Tivy High School Library

Kerrville, Texas

Judy Sima

Media Specialist

Chatterton Middle School

Warren, Michigan

James Jeffrey Tong

Manager, History and Travel Department

Detroit Public Library

Detroit, Michigan

Betty Waznis

Librarian

San Diego County Library

San Diego, California

ADVISORY BOARD

Photographs and illustrations appearing in the Encyclo￾pedia of World Biography Supplement, Volume 21,

have been used with the permission of the following

sources:

AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS: Henry Armstrong, Mar￾guerite Ross Barnett, Glenn Cunningham, Jerry Garcia,

Bob Gibson, Daniel Guggenheim, Walter Perry John￾son, Raul Julia, John Harvey Kellogg, Ethel Merman,

George Mikan, Jean Nidetch, Pete Rose, Sam Snead,

Dalton Trumbo, Melvin Van Peebles

ARCHIVE PHOTOS, INC.: Roger Bannister, Francis

Baring, Robert Russell Bennett, Bernadette of Lourdes,

George W. Bush, Yakima Canutt, Chien Lung, Clement

VII, Roger Corman, Pierre de Coubertin, Bob Cousy,

Robert De Niro, Edwin Laurentine Drake, Oliver

Ellsworth, Auguste Escoffier, Peter Carl Faberge, Bob

Feller, Albert Fink, Werner Forssmann, Jakob Fugger,

Gregory IX, Samuel David Gross, Rowland Hill, Joseph￾Marie Jacquard, John Kander, Edmund Kean, William

Kidd, Charles Michel de l’Epee, Anita Loos, Mata Hari,

Christy Mathewson, Bob Mathias, Louella Parsons, John

Robinson Pierce, Lydia Estes Pinkham, Gavrilo Princip,

Gale Sayers, Willie Shoemaker, Daniel Edgar Sickles

CORBIS CORPORATION (BELLEVUE): Desi Arnaz,

Blackbeard (Edward Teach), Felix Blanchard, Blanche

of Castile, Arna Bontemps, Don Budge, John Chapman

(“Johnny Appleseed”), Glenn Davis, Henry W. Flagler,

Isabella Stewart Gardner, Frank Gilbreth, King C.

Gillette, Otto Graham, Walter Hagen, Samuel Hahne￾mann, John Harington, John Harvard, Will Hays, Rogers

Hornsby, Bruce Jenner, John II of Portugal, Rafer John￾son, Natalie Kalmus, Rene Laennec, Albert Lasker,

Nicholas Leblanc, Otto Lilienthal, Mary Mallon, Alice

Marble, Andreas Sigismund Marggraf, George Perkins

Marsh, Winsor McCay, William C. Menzies, Bronko

Nagurski, James A. Naismith, Gerald Nye, Al Oerter,

Sam Peckinpah, Willie Pep, George Walbridge Perkins,

Paul Julius Reuter, John Wellborn Root, Thomas E.

Starzl, Simon Stevin, Dutch Warmerdam

THE GAMMA LIAISON NETWORK: Charles Frederick

Worth

THE GRANGER COLLECTION LTD.: Martin Behaim,

Alexander Cartwright, Chu Yuan-chang, Gerolamo Fra￾castoro, Sophie Germain, Joseph Glidden, John Gorrie,

Walter Hunt, Marie-Louise LaChapelle, George Mallory,

Berthe Morisot, Nikolaus August Otto, Constantine

Rafinesque, Henry Martyn Robert, Tomas de

Torquemada

THE KOBAL COLLECTION: Saul Bass, Billy Bitzer,

James Cagney, Gary Cooper, Vittorio De Sica, William

Fox, Bernard Herrmann, Thomas Ince, Jesse Lasky,

Gregg Toland, Erich Von Stroheim, Billy Wilder

THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS: Charles Atlas, Elias

Boudinot, Johannes Fibiger, Eadweard Muybridge,

Bernardino Ramazzini, Frederick Winslow Taylor

NATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINIS￾TRATION: Captain Jack

PUBLIC DOMAIN: John Montagu (Earl of Sandwich),

Rick Nelson, Johnny Weissmuller

VARTOOGIAN, JACK: Fela (Fela Anikulapo Kuti)

WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY: Jerry West

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xi

The following people, appearing in volumes 1–20 of the

Encyclopedia of World Biography, have died since the

publication of the second edition and its supplements.

Each entry lists the volume where the full biography can

be found.

ASSAD, HAFIZ (born 1930), Syrian president, died of

heart failure in Damascus, Syria, June 10, 2000 (Vol. 1).

BALTHUS (BALTHASAR KLOSSOWSKI) (born 1908),

European painter and stage designer, died in Rossiniere,

Switzerland, February 18, 2001 (Vol. 1).

BANDARANAIKE, SIRIMAVO (born 1916), Sri Lankan

prime minister, died of heart failure in Sri Lanka, Octo￾ber 10, 2000 (Vol. 1).

BLOCH, KONRAD (born 1912), American biochemist,

died of heart failure in Burlington, Massachusetts, Oc￾tober 15, 2000 (Vol. 2).

DONG, PHAM VAN (born 1906), Vietnamese premier,

died in Hanoi, Vietnam, April 29, 2000 (Vol. 5).

FIGUEIREDO, JOAO BATISTA DE OLIVEIRA (born

1918), Brazilian president, died of heart failure in Rio

de Janeiro, Brazil, December 24, 1999 (Vol. 5).

GUINNESS, ALEC (born 1914), British actor, died of

liver cancer in Midhurst, England, August 5, 2000

(Vol. 7).

HARTSHORNE, CHARLES (born 1897), American the￾ologian, died in Austin, Texas, October 9, 2000 (Vol. 7).

LAWRENCE, JACOB (born 1917), American painter,

died in Seattle, Washington, June 9, 2000 (Vol. 9).

LINDBERGH, ANNE MORROW (born 1906), American

author and aviator, died in Passumpsic, Vermont, Feb￾ruary 7, 2001 (Vol. 9).

PUENTE, TITO (born 1923), American musician, died

in New York, May 31, 2000 (Vol. 12).

QUINE, WILLARD VAN ORMAN (born 1908), Ameri￾can philosopher, died in Boston, Massachusetts, De￾cember 25, 2000 (Vol. 12).

RICHARD, MAURICE “ROCKET” (born 1921), Cana￾dian hockey player, died in Montreal, Canada, May 27,

2000 (Vol. 19).

ROWAN, CARL T. (born 1925), American journalist,

author, and ambassador, died in Washington, DC, Sep￾tember 23, 2000 (Vol. 13).

SEGAL, GEORGE (born 1924), American sculptor, died

of cancer in New Jersey, June 9, 2000 (Vol. 14).

SIMON, HERBERT ALEXANDER (born 1916), American

economist, died in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, February

9, 2001 (Vol. 14).

SITHOLE, NDABANINGI (born 1920), African political

activist, died in Darby, Pennsylvania, December 12,

2000 (Vol. 14).

TRUDEAU, PIERRE ELLIOTT (born 1919), Canadian

prime minister, died of prostate cancer on September

28, 2000 (Vol. 15).

XENAKIS, IANNIS (born 1922), Greek-French composer

and architect, died in Paris, France, February 4, 2001

(Vol. 16).

ZATOPEK, EMIL (born 1922), Czechoslovakian runner,

died in Prague, Czech Republic, November 22, 2000

(Vol. 20).

OBITUARIES

xiii

William Albright

William Foxwell Albright (1891-1971) was a well￾known, prolific, and gifted archaeologist and scholar

of the ancient Near East. He excavated several Bibli￾cal sites, served as director of the American Schools

of Oriental Research, and was a professor of Semitic

languages at Johns Hopkins University for many

years.

Albright was born on May 24, 1891 in Coquimbo,

Chile, to Methodist missionary parents who were

stationed in the Atacama Desert. His family had

very modest means. Although they were able to provide the

bare necessities of life, he and his three brothers and two

sisters were not brought up with any luxuries. The family

lived in a missionary compound separate from the Chilean

people. They were constantly reminded of their cultural

differences. When Albright’s parents wanted him to do

errands for them outside the compound, they had to spank

him in order to force him to go out and face the Chilean

children, who harassed him and occasionally even tossed

stones at him, calling him ‘‘gringo’’; they also teased him for

being a Protestant in a largely Catholic country.

Albright was different from the Chilean children in two

other ways: although he was tall and strong, he had such

weak eyes that he couldn’t read without holding the book

only inches from his face. He was so afraid of becoming

blind that he taught himself to read Braille. In addition, an

accident with a farm machine when he was five had re￾sulted in his left hand being injured and rendered almost

useless. Because of these afflictions, as well as his isolated

status as a missionary child, he didn’t play much with other

children and spent most of his time in his father’s library,

which was filled with books on history and theology. These

formed the basis for a rich imaginary world. G. Ernest

Wright wrote in Near Eastern Archaeology in the Twentieth

Century, ‘‘His play was solitary and mental, in which he

constructed ever larger and more complex historical

worlds-peopled by imaginary heroes and non-heroes-an

activity to which he credits his adult success in historical

synthesis.’’ Albright never forgot his childhood experience

of being an outcast and a member of a persecuted minority,

and throughout his life would remain sympathetic to the

plight of minorities, outsiders, and the poor.

Albright became deeply interested in Biblical archaeol￾ogy by age eight, and by the time he was ten, he had

managed to save enough of the pennies his parents gave

him to to buy the recently published History of Babylonia

and Assyria by R. W. Rogers, a professor at Drew University.

At the time, the book was the most comprehensive volume

on this topic in English. He read the book so many times that

he virtually memorized it. He also taught himself Hebrew so

that he could better understand the Bible and Biblical his￾tory.

Hard Work and Lean Living

In 1903 Albright’s parents moved the family back to

Iowa, where his father was pastor of a series of small

Methodist churches in the Midwest. In 1907, when he was

16, he entered Upper Iowa University, the same school his

father had attended, and graduated in 1912 with a B.A. in

classics and mathematics. Because his family was poor, he

worked as a farm hand during the summers. The work

exercised his crippled hand so much that eventually he

could milk cows with it. These frugal years of hard work and

A

1

lean living taught him that he could live, and even thrive, on

very little. He claimed that they toughened him for his later

career as an archaeologist, because archaeologists often

live very roughly when they are on expeditions to remote

parts of the world. This toughness was confirmed by Wright,

who commented, ‘‘Those who have ever worked with him

on an excavation can certainly agree with him that this was

excellent training. . . . He possessed a will and a constitu￾tion of iron.’’

At the same time that he was so excited by his studies,

however, Albright felt guilty to be spending his meager

money on his schooling, because his family was so impov￾erished. Nevertheless, he managed his meager finances

well enough to make it all the way through school without a

break, and even spent money on books, which he read

secretly on Sundays-a day when all non-religious reading

was banned by his strict parents.

Academic Honors and Teaching Positions

Albright briefly worked as a principal of a small South

Dakota high school, then applied to Johns Hopkins Univer￾sity, where he was accepted and given a scholarship based

on the strength of an article he had submitted with his

application. The article, ‘‘The Amorite form of the Name

Hammurabi,’’ on an ancient Akkadian king’s name, had

been accepted for publication by a German scholarly jour￾nal on the ancient Near East, and impressed Paul Haupt,

who was head of the Oriental Seminary at the University.

When Albright showed up at the university, he was already

fluent in Spanish and German, had taught himself Greek

and Latin, and had a fair knowledge of ancient Hebrew and

Assyrian, as well as a wide knowledge of ancient history and

cultures.

At the University, Albright studied the Akkadian cul￾ture. He received his doctorate in 1916, preparing a disser￾tation on ‘‘The Assyrian Deluge Epic,’’ an ancient myth very

similar to the story of Noah and the Flood in the Bible. By

that time, he had already published twelve scholarly arti￾cles. Despite this impressive beginning, Albright didn’t ex￾pect to find work as a professor immediately, and he did not.

From 1916 until 1919, he held research fellowships, and he

served briefly in labor battalions during World War I. He

met his beloved wife, Ruth Norton, in 1916 and married her

in 1921. She later earned a Ph.D. in Sanskrit literature at

Johns Hopkins.

Albright continued to study and write on various Near

Eastern subjects. In 1919 he received the Thayer Fellowship

of the American Schools of Oriental Research in Jerusalem.

He was acting director of the school in 1920-21, and in

1922 became its director, a position he held until 1936. He

was a professor of Semitic Languages at Johns Hopkins

University from 1929 until he retired in 1958.

While in Palestine, Albright learned to speak Arabic

and expanded his knowledge of modern Hebrew. He also

expanded the scope of his writing to include studies of

ancient topography, but did not write only on this topic. As

Wright noted, ‘‘No subject lay outside his interest, and if it

interested him enough, he could and usually did write a

brilliant article on it, whether or not he had specific aca￾demic training in the particular subject.’’ He became con￾vinced, through living and exploring in Palestine, that much

of the Bible could be considered a historical document: that

many of the cities mentioned in it had existed and that

remnants of them could perhaps still be found.

Discoveries and Innovations in Palestine

As a boy, Albright had worried that all the good archae￾ological sites in Palestine would be excavated before he was

old enough to work as an archaeologist, but of course this

was not the case. In fact, in 1922 he discovered that Tell el￾Ful, a mound four miles north of Jerusalem, was the site of

Jerusalem’s first capital, and said joyfully that until this

identification of the site, not one major city of ancient Israel

had even been discovered. He began a small excavation

there, and returned for more work at the site in 1934.

Albright is perhaps most widely known for his identifi￾cation and reconstruction of the palace-fortress of Saul,

which was confirmed by a later archaeologist, Paul W.

Lapp, in 1964, shortly before King Hussein built his own

palace on top of the ruins. Before Albright’s time, archaeo￾logists had trouble determining the dates of the ruins they

found. Their chronology of sites they excavated was often

vague or nonexistent. However, Albright quickly mastered a

new technique, that of pottery chronology. In this tech￾nique, archeologists first determine the ages of various types

of pottery, using their style, their position in various ruins,

and their relationship to other items that could be dated.

Then, when they find the same styles of pottery in a ruin that

has previously not been dated, they use their knowledge of

pottery types and the ages of those types to determine when

the ancient structures were used. Albright became so skilled

at this technique that he could tell, by examining pottery

fragments found on the surface of a site, whether the site

could potentially be an ancient site. In addition, he ad￾vanced the field of pottery chronology so quickly that other

scholars couldn’t keep up with him. Wright summed up

Albright’s contributions to this field by noting, ‘‘It must be

said that Albright created the discipline of Palestinian ar￾chaeology as we know it.’’

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Albright excavated a

site called Tell Beit Mirsim, which he determined was the

city of Debir in the Bible. In 1932 he published a detailed

description of the ten layers of the site and its pottery in the

Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, and

added a correction and revision of the chronology of the

Bronze Age layers of the site in 1933. Further descriptions of

the Bronze Age layers and the Iron Age layers of the site

followed in 1938 and 1943. With this work, Albright made

Palestinian archaeology into a science, instead of what it

had formerly been-‘‘a digging in which the details are more

or less well-described in an indifferent chronological frame￾work which is as general as possible and often wildly

wrong,’’ according to Wright.

Wide Influence and Scholarly Legacy

In addition to his excavation and work in chronology,

Albright advanced Near Eastern archaeology through his

teaching of other scholars, and also through his work as

2 ALBRIGHT ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY

editor of the American Schools of Oriental Research’s

Bulletin. He edited the journal from 1931 until 1968. Dur￾ing that time, he attracted a great deal of attention to ancient

Near Eastern studies. The intense focus on discovery and

learning in the journal excited readers, according to Wright,

imparting a feeling of being on the cutting edge of archaeo￾logical discovery. Albright contributed articles to almost

every issue, and showed his unusually deep and wide grasp

of a wide range of subjects and disciplines, which he

brought together in a masterful synthesis. He was a prolific

writer, completing over 1100 articles and books during his

lifetime.

Throughout his life, Albright was honored with numer￾ous awards, honorary doctorates, and medals, and was

given the title ‘‘Worthy One of Jerusalem’’-the first time the

award had been given to a non-Jew. After his death, his

legacy continued as a large number of scholars, inspired by

his work, became specialists in the areas Albright had pio￾neered. The American Schools of Oriental Research is now

known as the Albright Institute of Archaeological Research,

in honor of Albright’s exceptional contributions to the field.

Albright died in Baltimore, Maryland from multiple

strokes on September 19, 1971—a few months after cele￾brating his eightieth birthday. In his preface to Hans

Goedicke’s Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William

Foxwell Albright, Wendell Phillips wrote, ‘‘His religious

training, which began before he could walk, became his

career; the Bible has been the center of all his research,

particularly the Old Testament, which made such a vivid

impression on him as a boy. It was his real world more than

the modern world in which he lived. He believed in it as

history and he identified himself with it, just as he identified

himself with the Old Testament warriors and kings.’’

Books

King, Philip J. American Archaeology in the Mideast, American

Schools of Oriental Research, 1983.

Near Eastern Archaeology in the Twentieth Century, edited by

James Sanders, Doubleday and Co., 1970.

Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William Foxwell Albright,

edited by Hans Goedicke, Johns Hopkins Press, 1971.

Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, edited by

Eric M. Meyers, Oxford University Press, 1997.

Who Was Who in America 1970-1979, Marquis Who’s Who,

1980.

Aldus Manutius

Aldus Manutius (1450?-1515) contributed the first

Greek and italic fonts to the publishing world.

Through his printing company, he published the

great works of the ancient philosophers, for the first

time in their native Greek language.

Aldus Manutius the Elder was a dedicated scholar of

the Italian Renaissance. He established a printing

company, the Aldine Press, where he produced his

first dated publication in February of 1495. The Aldine

works were readily recognizable by a distinctive trademark

depicting a dolphin’s body wrapped around the shaft of an

anchor. Early in the sixteenth century Aldus founded the

Aldine Academy of Hellenic Scholars, through which he

promoted the works of the great classical philosophers and

scientists in their native Greek language. Aldus possessed a

passion for learning and devoted his life’s energy to publish￾ing the great writings of classic literature on the newly

invented printing press. In addition to his prized publica￾tions, Aldus was remembered most significantly for the

many fonts (typefaces) that he designed. After the death of

his grandson, Aldus Manutius the Younger, in 1598 the

Aldine Press ceased operation, having published 908 edi￾tions.

Teacher and Scholar

Details regarding the birth and early life of Aldus have

been in dispute for centuries. Even his descendents proved

unable to agree on certain details. He was born in the town

of Bassiano or possibly in nearby Sermoneta, in the vicinity

of Rome, sometime between 1449 and 1451. Of his parent￾age and siblings little information survived, although in

adulthood he was known to have cared for three sisters.

Existing historical papers and letters indicate that Aldus was

educated in Rome where he studied at least into the mid

1470s. It is known that his studies included a sojourn under

Gaspare da Verona at the Sapienza (University of Rome) at

some time between 1460 and 1473. Aldus studied Greek at

the University at Ferrara, southwest of Venice, with Battista

Guarino and was presumably in his mid to late teens when

the new Gutenberg printing press arrived in Rome during

the mid 1460s. It created a stir among the intelligentsia and

scholars.

On March 8, 1480, the well educated Aldus was

granted citizenship in the town of Carpi, where he served as

tutor to Alberto and Lionello Pio, two princes of that town

and the nephews of Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, a prom￾inent citizen. Aldus, it is believed, became acquainted with

della Mirandola at Ferrara, where Aldus probably taught

during the late 1470s until as late as 1482. He completed

some writings during those years, and in particular he wrote

some educational aids for the students in his tutelage. One

such pamphlet, Musarum Panegyris, was published in a

very limited edition by Baptista de Tortis of Venice. The

work essentially was a letter to the mother of the Princes Pio

and was intended to enhance their learning environment.

Four known copies survived into the twentieth century.

Aldus moved to Venice in 1489 or 1490 for the purpose

of opening a print shop; he continued also to teach, as he

was a dedicated scholar. In 1494 he expanded his print

shop and brought in two partners: a printer named Andrea

Torresani and a financial backer or patron named

Pierfrancesco Barbarigo. Much of what is known of Aldus

was revealed by the scholar himself in the dedications and

other front and back matter of his publications. In 1506, for

example, Aldus related in the preface of his second edition

of Horace that he had recently spent six days in jail in

Mantua, suspected of hooliganism. His agricultural manual

Volume 21 ALDUS MANUTIUS 3

of 1514, Scriptores rei rusticae, included a statement of his

copyright privilege to be valid for a period of 15 years, as

granted by Pope Leo X.

Publications

When Aldus first envisioned the Aldine Press in 1489,

he was nearly 40 years old. Scholars as a result have specu￾lated repeatedly as to what prompted a successful teacher

such as Aldus to embrace a completely new and untested

profession so late in life. Many believe that Aldus was fasci￾nated by the written word and by the basic rhythms of

literary text and the sounds of different languages. To this

effect he published a book of Latin grammar in 1493 and

printed new editions in 1501, 1508, and 1514. The original

(1493) edition of this Aldine grammar, entitled Institutiones

grammaticae, carried an epilogue that justified the work as

an effort to enhance and facilitate the teaching of young

children. He subsequently spent three years, from 1495

until 1498, in compiling and publishing virtually every

known work of Aristotle into a series of five folio (full-page

format) documents. At the occasion of the Aldine

quincentennial, Brigham Young University in Utah dis￾played among its holdings two surviving volumes of the

Aldine Aristotle in its entirety and a priceless single page of

another volume. In addition to his many folio publications,

Aldus published quartos (one-quarter-size pages) and

octavos (one-eighth-size pages). His octavos have been

likened to paperback books of the twenty-first century.

In 1497 Aldus published a Greek-language version of a

popular Latin prayer compilation, called Horae Beatissimae

Virgines (Book of Hours) in a tiny, 115 by 79 mm format,

even smaller than his octavo format. The following year he

became the first printer to publish the works of Aristophanes

and, in 1499, he released an Aldine publication of

Scriptores Astronomici veteres. Scriptores contained six

works, including a comprehensive astrological text, called

Mathesis and written by Maternus. The Aldine version was

the most comprehensive such publication of the times. Sur￾viving copies of the text provide invaluable information

concerning fourth century Roman society.

Printer’s Markings and Type

The now-famous anchor-and-dolphin impresa

(printer’s emblem) with the motto ‘‘fastina lente,’’ first ap￾peared in print in a 1499 Aldine publication,

Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, as an illustration in the book.

Two years later, the symbol became the trademark of the

Aldine Press when, in January of 1501, Aldus published the

same anchor-and-dolphin symbol as the Aldine impresa in

the second volume of Poetae Christiania veteres. The design

of the impresa was taken from a reproduction of an old

Roman coin and bore a motto quoted from the Emperor

Augustus, which read, ‘‘fastina lente’’ (‘‘make haste

slowly’’). The proverb emphasized the tedious attention to

detail demanded of the printer in the mass production of

books.

Among the greatest achievements of Aldus Manutius

were the Aldine fonts. He was the first printer to develop

an italic roman font. The Aldine italic fonts were modeled

from the handwriting of two Italian scribes, Pomponio

Leto and Bartolomeo Sanvito, who were contemporaries

of Aldus. Francesco Griffo, a Bolognese type cutter, built

the Aldine fonts for Aldus. In the 1500 edition of Epistole

devotissime of Catherine of Sienna, letters appeared in the

human-like italic script in the inscription below one of the

illustrations in the book. Aldus introduced his first com￾plete italic typeface when he published a collection of the

works of Virgil in 1501.

In addition to the new italic fonts, the collection of

Aldine typefaces included also three complete fonts of

Greek characters. Of these typefaces, two were modeled

from the handwriting of the Greek scribe, Immanuel

Rhusotas. In November of 1502, the doge of Venice

awarded a copyright to Aldus for his Greek and italic fonts,

thus forbidding anyone else from use or imitation of the

Aldine fonts under penalty of fine. The italic fonts were

significant politically because they were used for printing

government documents in Venice and other Italian city￾states. Aldus published the copyright notice in his Ovid

collection of 1502.

When Aldus established the Aldine Academy of Hel￾lenic Scholars in 1502, it served as a venue for the develop￾ment of his translations and typefaces. A subsequent

publication of the works of Sophocles, the first such printing

of the seven tragedies in the natural Greek language, was

published under the auspices of the Aldine Academy. The

book appeared in 1502 in the octavo (165 by 96 mm)

format. The year 1502 also saw the first printing of the

Thucydides history of the Peloponnesian War in its original

Greek, the first Aldine publication of the works of Cicero, as

well as Catullus, and the poems of Ovid. Although the Ovid

publication featured an extensive index, it was left to the

buyer of the book to number the pages. In 1505 Aldus

printed his Aesop’s Fables in an eclectic compilation con￾taining a total of seven first editions, among them the

Hieroglyphica treatise of Herapollo defining the Egyptian

Hieroglyphics.

Aldus published the works of his Renaissance contem￾poraries in addition to the Greek and Latin classicists. The

Dutch humanist, Desiderius Erasmus, was perhaps the most

renowned among the sixteenth-century authors published

by the Aldine Press. Erasmus, in fact, spent eight months in

supervising the publication of an Aldine revision of his own

book of adages in 1508. The 1509 Aldine publication of

Plutarch’s Moralia was edited by Demetrius Ducas with

assistance from Erasmus. It was an overwhelming project,

nearly scrapped on multiple occasions, and constituted the

first Greek edition of the essays.

Aldus left Venice from 1509 until 1512, abandoning

his printing press in the process, because a French invasion

of Italy threatened his real estate holdings elsewhere. He

returned to Venice in 1512, where he resumed his printing

craft, having failed in his effort to oust the invading squatt￾ers. Upon his return he published the works of Julius Caesar

in 1513, in what was the only Aldine publication to include

multicolored maps.

Aldus’s final publication, De rerum natura of Lucretius,

went to print one month before his death. After he died he

4 ALDUS MANUTIUS ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY

was eulogized publicly by the members of his print shop in

a written remembrance that appeared in an edition of

Lactantius selections and Tertullian’s Apologeticum, which

went to print that same year. In the remembrance the

printers hailed Aldus as a master printer with a singular

devotion to the spread of learning. As his body lay in state in

the Church of St. Paternian his admirers heaped huge piles

of Aldine publications upon the catafalque. Although Aldus

devoted himself tirelessly to his printing business for over 20

years, he owned only ten percent of the operation at the

time of his death in 1515.

The Aldine Legacy

The printed works of Aldus Manutius are representative

of a wave of humanism that rippled through Renaissance

Italy during the first half of the fifteenth century. From his

shop in Venice, he published 134 editions during his life￾time and produced as many as two thousand copies for

some editions. Among these were 68 Latin volumes and 58

in Greek. The output from his press included 30 first print￾ings of Greek classics, among them the works of Sophocles,

Euripides, Thucydides, Herodotus, and Demosthenes. He

was involved in developing an Aldine grammar of the Greek

language at the time of his death.

In the years immediately following the death of Aldus

Manutius, the shop remained under the control of Torresani.

Sadly, many serious and confusing printing errors occurred

in the Aldine publications during that time. The situation

improved, presumably after the young Paulus Manutius

assumed control and operated the shop until 1574. Paulus

Manutius was the son of Aldus and Torresani’s daughter,

Maria, who wed in 1505. Of the couple’s five children,

Paulus (Paulo) Manutius, was only two years old when his

father died and was raised thereafter by his paternal grand￾father. Under P. Manutius the Aldine Press served as official

printer to the Catholic Church. Also published by the press

during those years was a prototype of the modern thesaurus,

called Eleganze della lingua toscana e latina. Aldus

Manutius II, the grandson of Aldus Manutius and the son of

Paulus Manutius, maintained the Aldine Press until his own

death in 1597. So prized were the Aldine publications dur￾ing the sixteenth century that a set of reproductions ap￾peared in Paris during Aldus’s lifetime. These are called the

Lyon forgeries. Other copies or forgeries appeared else￾where during the years of the operation of the Aldine Press.

In the aftermath of the industrial revolution, four hun￾dred years after the death of Aldus, much was written about

the early printer and the impact of his work on modern life.

Among the various publications are a bibliography by A. A.

Renouard, a biography by M. Lowry, and assorted analytical

texts about the Aldine typefaces. ‘‘[H]is books represent the

finest flowering of the era we know as the renaissance,’’

noted librarian Ralph Stanton in an exposition on the occa￾sion of the 500-year anniversary of the Aldine Press. An

exhibition of prized original Aldine publications was col￾lected by the Harold B. Lee Library at Brigham Young

University and adapted for Internet viewing to commemo￾rate the anniversary. The full impact of the work of Aldus

Manutius and the Aldine Press cannot be underestimated as

he lived in an era when published reading matter was avail￾able only to the highest-ranking members of the clergy and

the nobility.

Books

Lowry, Martin, The World of Aldus Manutius, Cornell University

Press, 1979.

Online

‘‘Aldus Pius Manutius,’’ Simon Fraser University Library,

http://www.lib.sfu.ca/proj/aldus.htm (December 20, 2000).

‘‘In Aedibsv Aldis: The Legacy of Aldus Manutius and His Press,’’

Brigham Young University, http://www.lib.byu.edu/
aldine/

(December 20, 2000).

Amina of Zaria

Amina of Zaria (1533-1610?), commonly known as

the warrior queen, expanded the territory of the

Hausa people of north Africa to the largest borders

in history. More than 400 years later, the legend of

her persona became the model for a television series

about a fictional warrior princess, called Xena.

Amina was the warrior queen of Zazzau (now Zaria).

She is known also as Amina Sarauniya Zazzau. She

lived approximately 200 years prior to the estab￾lishment of the Sokoto-Caliphate federation that governed

Nigeria during the period of British colonial rule following

the Islamic jahad (holy war) that overtook the region in the

nineteenth century. According to most accounts, Queen

Amina ruled for 34 years at the turn of the sixteenth and

seventeenth centuries. Her domain of Zazzau, a city-state of

Hausaland, was eventually renamed to Zaria and is the

capital of the present-day emirate of Kaduna in Nigeria.

Although many details of her life remain largely in dispute

among historians, the fact that she existed is a matter of

general acceptance, and she is presumed to have been a

Moslem ruler. Much of what is known of Queen Amina is

based on information related in the Kano Chronicles, a

translation by Muhammed Bellow of pre-colonial African

tradition based in part on anonymous Hausa writings. Other

details were pulled from the oral traditions of Nigeria. As a

result, the memory of Queen Amina assumed legendary

proportions in her native Hausaland and beyond. The extent

of her military prowess and her performance in battle was

augmented by lore and remains unclear.

The reign of Amina occurred at a time when the city￾state of Zazzau was situated at the crossroad of three major

trade corridors of northern Africa, connecting the region of

the Sahara with the remote markets of the southern forest

lands and the western Sudan. It was the rise and fall of the

powerful and more dominant Songhai (var. Songhay) peo￾ple and the resulting competition for control of trade routes

that incited continual warring among the Hausa people and

the neighboring settlements during the fifteenth and six￾Volume 21 AMINA OF ZARIA 5

teenth centuries. It was not until later that a ruling arrange￾ment between the Hausa and the Fulani people ultimately

brought a lasting peace to the region and survived into the

colonial era of the nineteenth century.

Heir Apparent

Amina was the twenty-fourth habe, as the rulers of

Zazzau were called. She is believed to have been the

granddaughter of King Zazzau Nohir. Speculation suggests

that she was born sometime during his reign, around 1533.

This theory lends credence to the belief that Amina ruled

Zazzau at the end of the sixteenth century. The citizens of

Hausaland at that time displayed advanced skills in the

industrial arts of tanning, weaving, and metalworking—in

contrast to the inhabitants of the neighboring territories and

surrounding cultures, where agriculture remained the domi￾nant activity. The Hausa social hierarchy, as a result, was

bound less rigidly in the social standings of tradition, which

were based on hereditary factors.

Amina was born the eldest of three royal siblings. She

was 16 years old when her noble parent, the powerful

Bakwa of Turunku (var. Barkwa Turunda), inherited the

throne of Zazzau. Historical accounts of Bakwa, the twenty￾second habe of Zazzau, vary as to whether Bakwa was

Amina’s father or mother. Although the reign of Bakwa was

known for peace and prosperity, the history of the Hausa

people was nonetheless characterized by military cam￾paigns for the purpose of increasing commerce. During the

years between 1200-1700 Hausaland was, in fact, fraught

with warring parties. These descended into neighboring

territories that were inhabited by the Jukun and the Nupe to

the south, in an effort to control trade and to expand the

Hausa communities into more desirable environs. The

Hausa, in turn, were conquered intermittently during those

years by various other peoples. The Mali, Fulani, and Bornu

were among the aggressors in these clashes. During the

reign of Bakwa, the teenaged Amina occupied herself in

honing her battle skills, under the guidance of the soldiers of

the Zazzau military.

As was the custom of the region, the rule of Zazzau fell

to Amina’s brother, Karama, upon the death of Bakwa in

1566. Although Karama was the younger of the two, it was

the male heir who took precedence in ascending the throne.

The third sibling, a sister named Zaria, eventually fled the

region. By the time that Amina assumed the throne, follow￾ing the death of her brother in the tenth year of his rule, she

had matured into a fierce warrior and had earned the re￾spect of the Zazzau military. Amina, in fact, established her

dominance as the head of the Zazzau cavalry even before

she came to rule the city-state.

Exploits in Battle

Within three months of inheriting the throne, Queen

Amina embarked on what was to be the first in an ongoing

series of military engagements associated with her rule. She

stood in command of an immense military band and per￾sonally led the cavalry of Zazzau through an ongoing series

of campaigns, waging battle continually throughout the

course of her sovereignty. She spent the duration of her 34-

year reign in military aggression. Although the military cam￾paigns of Amina were characterized as efforts to ensure safe

passage for Zazzau and other Hausa traders throughout the

Saharan region, the practice proved effective in significantly

expanding the limits of Zazzau territory to the largest

boundaries before and since. African chronicler, P. J. M.

McEwan quoted the Kano Chronicles, which stated that

Amina, ‘‘conquered all the towns as far as Kwararafa [to the

north] and Nupe [in the south].’’ According to all indica￾tions, she came to dominate much of the region known as

Hausaland and beyond, throughout an area called

Kasashen Bauchi, prior to the settlement of the so-called

Gwandarawa Hausas of Kano in the mid 1600s. Kasashen

Bauchi in modern terms comprises the middle belt of Nige￾ria. In addition to Zazzau, the city-states of central

Hausaland included Rano, Kano, Daura, Gobir, and

Katsina. At one time, Amina dominated the entire area,

along with the associated trade routes connecting the west￾ern Sudan with Egypt on the east and Mali in the north. In

keeping with the custom of the times, she collected tributes

of kola nuts and male slaves from her subject cities. Also, as

was the custom of the Hausa people, Amina built walls

around the encampments of the territories that she con￾quered. Some of the walls survived into modern times; thus

her legacy remained entrenched in both the culture and

landscape of her native Hausa city-states.

Some have suggested that a neighboring Hausa king,

named Sarkin Kanajeji, held Amina at a serious disadvan￾tage in waging battle against his army, because Kanajeji’s

soldiers wore iron helmets for protection. Others, however,

have credited Amina with the introduction of metal armor,

including the iron helmets and chain mail. It has been

further suggested that she was responsible for the introduc￾tion of the new armor to the Hausa city-state of Kano.

Regardless of its origin, the innovation of protective armor

arrived in Hausaland during the era of Amina. Because the

Hausa of Zazzau were well skilled in the metalworking

crafts, it is not unreasonable to infer that Amina’s army was

well protected by body armor.

Some historians have credited Amina with originating

the Hausa practice of building the military encampments

behind fortress walls. A 15-kilometer wall surrounding the

modern-day city of Zaria dates back to Amina and is known

as ganuwar Amina (Amina’s wall). Additionally, a distinc￾tive series of walls wind throughout the countryside in the

vicinities of the ancient city-states of Hausaland. These

came to be called Amina’s walls to the rest of the world,

although not all of the walls were built during the reign of

Amina.

Conflicting Theories and Legend

Information about the history of Hausaland during the

era of Amina is sketchy. Foreign visitors who traveled to

Africa during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries col￾lected many of the historical accounts of those times. Other

information was garnered from the oral traditions of the

descendants of the early Hausa people.

Historians J. F. Ajayi and Michael Crowder suggested

that Amina lived in the fifteenth century rather than the

6 AMINA OF ZARIA ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY