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FM & PM-Sullivan Vol II.qxd 11/16/2004 10:04 PM Page i
EDITORIAL BOARD
Geoffrey Alpert
University of South Carolina
Thomas Feltes
University of Applied Police Sciences, Spaichingen, Germany
Lorie A. Fridell
Police Executive Research Forum, Washington, DC
James J. Fyfe
John Jay College of Criminal Justice
David T. Johnson
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Peter K. Manning
Northeastern University
Stephen D. Mastrofski
George Mason University
Rob Mawby
University of Plymouth, U.K.
Mark Moore
Harvard University
Maurice Punch
London School of Economics, U.K.
Wesley G. Skogan
Northwestern University
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FM & PM-Sullivan Vol II.qxd 11/16/2004 10:04 PM Page iii
Copyright © 2005 by Sage Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
For information:
Sage Publications, Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
E-mail: [email protected]
Sage Publications Ltd.
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
London EC1Y 1SP
United Kingdom
Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
B-42, Panchsheel Enclave
Post Box 4109
New Delhi 110 017 India
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Encyclopedia of law enforcement / Larry E. Sullivan, general editor.
p. cm.
A Sage Reference Publication.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7619-2649-6 (cloth)
1. Law enforcement—Encyclopedias. 2. Criminal justice, Administration of—Encyclopedias.
I. Sullivan, Larry E.
HV7921.E53 2005
363.2′0973′03—dc22
2004021803
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
04 05 06 07 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Acquisitions Editor: Jerry Westby
Associate Editor: Benjamin Penner
Editorial Assistant: Vonessa Vondera
Production Editor: Denise Santoyo
Developmental Editor: Yvette Pollastrini
Systems Coordinator: Leticia Gutierrez
Copy Editor: Toni Williams
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Indexer: Pamela VanHuss
Cover Designer: Michelle Lee Kenny
FM & PM-Sullivan Vol II.qxd 11/16/2004 10:04 PM Page iv
Contents
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LAW ENFORCEMENT,
VOLUME II: FEDERAL
List of Entries, vi
Reader’s Guide, ix
List of Contributors, xv
Introduction, xix
About the Editors, xxiii
ENTRIES A-Z
533–912
Master Bibliography, 913
Appendix, A1
Index, I-1
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vi
Academy of Criminal Justice
Sciences
Airborne Law Enforcement
Association
AMBER Alert
American Society of Crime
Laboratory Directors
American Society of Criminology
Amtrak Police
Antiterrorism and Effective Death
Penalty Act
Appropriations and Budgeting for
Law Enforcement
Art Loss Register
ASIS International (Formerly the
American Society for
Industrial Security)
Asset Forfeiture
Ballistics Recognition and
Identification Systems
Brady Handgun Violence
Prevention Act
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
Firearms, and Explosives
Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Police
Bureau of Immigration and
Customs Enforcement
Bureau of Industry and Security
Bureau of Land Management
Law Enforcement
Bureau of Reclamation, Office of
Security, Safety, and
Law Enforcement
Burns Detective Agency
Campus Safety and Security Acts
Chemical and Biological
Terrorism
Children’s Online Privacy
Protection Act
Church Arson Prevention Act
Combined DNA Index System
Commission on the Accreditation
of Law Enforcement Agencies
Comprehensive Drug Abuse
Prevention and Control Act
Crime Laboratory Accreditation
Crime Statistics
Crimes, Federal Jurisdiction
Criminal Investigation
Command, Department of the
Army, Department of Defense
Critical Incident Response
Group
Death Penalty, Federally Eligible
Crimes
Defense Criminal Investigative
Service
Department of Education, Office
of the Inspector General
Department of Health and Human
Services
Department of Homeland
Security
Department of Justice
Diplomatic Security Service
DNA Testing
Drug Enforcement
Drug Enforcement Administration
Drug Testing of Employees
Economic Crime
Electronic Surveillance
Emergency Preparedness
Encryption
Exclusionary Rule
Federal Air Marshal
Program
Federal Aviation Administration
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Federal Communications
Commission, Enforcement
Bureau
Federal Drug Seizure System
Federal Law Enforcement
Officers Association
Federal Law Enforcement
Training Center
Federal Maritime Commission
Federal Policing in Indian
Country
Federal Protective Service
Federal Trade Commission
Federal Witness Protection
Program
Financial Crimes Enforcement
Network
Fish and Wildlife Service,
Division of Law
Enforcement
Food and Drug Administration
Forensic Accounting
Forest Service, Law
Enforcement and Investigations
Freedom of Information Act
Fugitive Felon Act
List of Entries
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List of Entries——vii
Government Printing Office
Police
Gun Control Act
Harrison Act
Hate Crimes
Hate Crimes Statistics Act
Hiring Standards for Federal Law
Enforcement
Hispanic American Police
Command Officers Association
Human Trafficking
Informants, Issues Surrounding
Use of
Inspectors General, Offices of
Integrated Automated Fingerprint
Identification Systems
Intelligence and Security
Command, Department of the
Army, Department of Defense
Internal Revenue Service,
Criminal Investigation
Division
Internal Revenue Service,
Inspection Service
International Association of
Campus Law Enforcement
Administrators
International Association of
Chiefs of Police
International Association of
Women Police
International Trade
Administration, Department of
Commerce
Internet Fraud Complaint
Center
Interstate Commerce Commission
Joint Task Forces
Law Enforcement Assistance
Administration
Law Enforcement Rangers,
National Park Service
Law Enforcement Television
Network
Library of Congress Police
Lindbergh Law
Mann Act
Marijuana Tax Act
Military Police, Department of
the Army, Department of
Defense
Military Policing
Militias
Mothers Against Drunk Driving
Motor Vehicle Theft Act
Narcotics Control Act
National Academy, Federal
Bureau of Investigation
National Advisory Commission
on Civil Disorder (Kerner
Commission)
National Association of Women
Law Enforcement Executives
National Black Police Officers
Association
National Commission on Law
Observance and Enforcement
(Wickersham Commission)
National Crime Information
Center
National Crime Victimization
Survey
National DNA Index System
National Domestic Preparedness
Office
National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration
National Incident-Based
Reporting System
National Institute of Justice
National Institutes of Health,
Department of Health and
Human Services
National Law Enforcement
and Corrections Technology
Center System
National Law Enforcement
Memorial
National Law Enforcement
Telecommunications System
National Marine Fisheries
Service, Department of
Commerce
National Native American Law
Enforcement Association
National Organization of
Black Law Enforcement
Executives
National Public Safety
Information Bureau
National Rifle Association
National Security Agency
National Sheriffs’ Association
National Transportation Safety
Board
National White Collar Crime
Center
National Zoological Park
(Smithsonian) Protective
Services
Naval Criminal Investigative
Service
Nuclear Security, Department of
Energy
Office of National Drug Control
Policy
Office of Protective Service,
National Gallery of Art
Office of Security, Central
Intelligence Agency
Office of Surface Mining
Reclamation and
Enforcement
Omnibus Crime Control
and Safe Streets Act
Pentagon Police
Pinkerton National Detective
Agency
Police Executive Research Forum
Police Foundation
Police and Security Service,
Department of Veterans Affairs
Posse Comitatus Act
President’s Commission on Law
Enforcement and the
Administration of Justice
Privacy Act
Prohibition Law Enforcement
Pure Food, Drink, and Drug Act
Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt
Organizations Act
Railroad Policing
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Secret Service
Securities and Exchange
Commission
Tennessee Valley Authority Police
Transportation Security
Administration
Treasury Inspector General for
Tax Administration
Undercover Operations
Uniform Crime Reporting
Program
U.S. Air Force Office of Special
Investigations
U.S. Air Force Security Forces
U.S. Capitol Police
U.S. Coast Guard
U.S. Criminal Investigation
Command, Department of the
Army, Department of Defense
U.S. Customs Service
U.S. Marshals Service
U.S. Mint Police
U.S. Park Police
U.S. Police Canine
Association Inc.
U.S. Postal Inspection Service
U.S. Supreme Court Police
USA PATRIOT Act
Violence Against Women Act
Violent Crime Control and
Law Enforcement Act
Volstead Act
Wackenhut Corporation
Weapons of Mass Destruction
Wells Fargo
White-Collar Crime Enforcement
Women in Federal Agency
Law Enforcement
Women in Federal Law
Enforcement
viii——Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement: Federal
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ix
AGENCIES/ASSOCIATIONS/
ORGANIZATIONS
Academy of Criminal Justice
Sciences
Airborne Law Enforcement
Association
American Society of Criminology
Burns Detective Agency
Child Welfare
Commission on the Accreditation of
Law Enforcement Agencies
Crime Stoppers
Federal Law Enforcement Officers
Association
Fraternal Organizations
Hispanic American Police Command
Officers Association
International Association of
Campus Law Enforcement
Administrators
International Association of
Chiefs of Police
International Association of Women
Police
Mothers Against Drunk Driving
National Association of Women Law
Enforcement Executives
National Black Police Officers
Association
National Native American Law
Enforcement Association
National Organization of Black Law
Enforcement Executives
National Rifle Association
National Sheriffs’ Association
Police Executive Research Forum
Police Foundation
U.S. Police Canine Association, Inc.
CIVILIAN/PRIVATE
INVOLVEMENT
America’s Most Wanted
Bondsman or Bail Agent
Bounty Hunters
Burns Detective Agency
Citizen’s Arrest
Citizen Police Academies
Crime Stoppers
Militias
Pinkerton National Detective Agency
Police Explorers
Private Policing
Vigilantes
Volunteers
Wackenhut Corporation
Wells Fargo
COMMUNICATIONS
Calls for Service
Communications Interoperability
Computer-Aided Dispatch
Dispatch
Interagency Cooperation . . . or Not
Information Technologies
National Law Enforcement
Telecommunications Systems
Response Time
CRIME STATISTICS
Clearance Rates
Crime Statistics
Crime Statistics and Analysis
Homicide Trends in the
United States
National Crime Victimization
Survey
National Incident-Based Reporting
System (NIBRS)
Uniform Crime Reports
CULTURE/MEDIA
America’s Most Wanted
Law Enforcement Television
Network
Law Enforcement Memorials
National Law Enforcement
Memorial Fund
News Media and Police
Perp Walk
Police Fiction
Police Museums
Public Perceptions/Attitudes
Toward Police
Television (Cop Shows)
DRUG ENFORCEMENT
Asset Forfeiture, State
Comprehensive Drug Abuse
Prevention and Control Act
Reader’s Guide
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x——Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement: Federal
Drug Enforcement in the
United States
Drug Enforcement Administration
Drug Policy and Legislation
Drug Prevention Education
Drug Testing of Employees
Drug Testing of Police
Drug Trafficking
Federal Drug Seizure System
Food and Drug Administration
Harrison Act
Marijuana Tax Act
Narcotics Control Act
Office of National Drug Control
Policy
Pure Food, Drink, and Drug Act
FEDERAL AGENCIES/
ORGANIZATIONS
Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Police
Bureau of Immigration and Customs
Enforcement
Bureau of Industry and Security
Bureau of Land Management, Law
Enforcement
Bureau of Reclamation, Office of
Security, Safety, and Law
Enforcement
Critical Incident Response Group
Department of Health and Human
Services
Department of Homeland Security
Department of Justice
Diplomatic Security Service
Drug Enforcement Administration
Federal Air Marshal Program
Federal Aviation Administration
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Federal Law Enforcement Training
Center
Federal Protective Service
Financial Crimes Enforcement
Network
Fish and Wildlife Service
Forest Service, Law Enforcement
and Investigations
Inspectors General
Inspectors General, Offices of
Internet Fraud Complaint Center
Law Enforcement Assistance
Administration
Library of Congress Police
National Crime Information Center
National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration
National Institutes of Health,
Department of Health and
Human Services
National Marine Fisheries Service,
Department of Commerce
National Public Safety Information
Bureau
National Security Agency
National Transportation
Safety Board
National Zoological (Smithsonian)
Park Protective Services
Nuclear Security, Department of
Energy
Office of Security, Central
Intelligence Agency
Office of Surface Mining
Reclamation and Enforcement
Pentagon Police
Secret Service
Tennessee Valley Authority Police
Transportation Security
Administration
U.S. Capitol Police
U.S. Coast Guard
U.S. Customs Service
U.S. Marshals Service
U.S. Postal Inspection Service
INTERNATIONAL LAW
ENFROCEMENT
Community Policing, a Caribbean
Case Study
Community Policing, International
EUROPOL
History of Policing
International Cooperation
International Criminal Justice
Mechanisms
INTERPOL
IPA
Police and the U.N. Peace
Missions
Police Corruption
Police Corruption, Strategies for
Combating
Police Structure:
Centralized/Decentralized
Police and Terrorism
Police Training
Privatization of Police
Suicide by Cop: Comparative
Perspectives
United Nations and Criminal Justice
Policy
Women in Policing
INVESTIGATION
TECHNIQUES
American Society of Crime
Laboratory Directors
Ballistics
Ballistics Recognition and
Identification Systems
Combined DNA Index System
Coroner and Medical Examiner
Systems
Crime Laboratories
Crime Laboratory Accreditation
Crime Mapping
Crime Scene Investigation
Detectives
DNA
DNA Testing
Document Examiners
Encryption
Evidence
Fingerprints
Forensic Accounting
Forensic Art
Forensic Science
Geographic Information
System (GIS)
Information Technologies
Interrogation
Investigation Techniques
Lie Detection
Profiling, Criminal Personality
Profiling, Drug Courier
Profiling, Geographic
Task Forces
Undercover Operations
INVESTIGATION, TYPES OF
AMBER Alert
Arson Investigation
Art Theft Investigation
Child Abduction Investigations
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Reader’s Guide——xi
Child Molestation
Child Pornography
Cold Case Investigations
Computer Crime
Crime Scene Investigation
Domestic Violence Enforcement
Drunk Driving Enforcement
Gangs Investigation
Homicide Investigation
Identity Theft and Identity
Crimes
Missing Persons Investigations
Office of Criminal Investigations
Organized Crime Control
Serial Murder Investigation
Sex Crimes Investigation
Vidocq Society
INVESTIGATIVE
COMMISSIONS
Christopher Commission, The
Crown Heights Report
Knapp Commission, The
McCone Commission, The
Mollen Commission, The
National Advisory Commission
on Civil Disorders (Kerner
Commission)
National Commission on Law
Observance and Enforcement
(Wickersham Commission)
President’s Commission on Law
Enforcement and the
Administration of Justice
Rampart Investigation, The
LAW AND JUSTICE
Crimes, Federal Jurisdiction
Death Penalty, Federally Eligible
Crimes
Identity Fraud Complaint Center
International Criminal Justice
Mechanisms
Parole Officers
Peace Officers
Probation Officers
Prosecutors
Repeat Offenders
Restorative Justice
Theories of Policing
LEGISLATION/LEGAL ISSUES
Antiterrorism and Effective Death
Penalty Act
Brady Handgun Violence
Prevention Act
Campus Safety and Security Acts
Children’s Online Privacy
Protection Act
Church Arson Prevention Act
Comprehensive Drug Abuse
Prevention and Control Act
Consent Decrees
Freedom of Information Act
Fugitive Felon Act
Gun Control
Gun Control Act
Harrison Act
Hate Crime Statutes
Hate Crimes, Law Enforcement
Response to
Hate Crimes Statistics Act
Immigrants (Policy Toward)
Mann Act
Marijuana Tax Act
Megan’s Law: Community
Notification of Registered
Sex Offenders
Motor Vehicle Theft Act
Narcotics Control Act
Omnibus Crime Control and
Safe Streets Act
Posse Comitatus Act
Privacy Act
Prohibition Law Enforcement
Pure Food, Drink, and
Drug Act
Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt
Organizations Act
Sex Offender Civil Commitment
USA PATRIOT Act
Violence Against Women Act
Violent Crime Control & Law
Enforcement Act (1994)
Volstead Act
MILITARY
Intelligence and Security Command,
Department of the Army,
Department of Defense
Militarization of American Police
Military Police, Department of the
Army, Department of Defense
Military Policing
National Guard
Naval Criminal Investigative
Service
U.S. Air Force Office of Special
Investigations
U.S. Air Force Security Police
U.S. Criminal Investigation
Command, Department of the
Army, Department of Defense
MINORITY ISSUES
Affirmative Action in Policing
Cultural Competency/Sensitivity
Training
Depolicing
Gays in Policing
Hate Crimes
Hate Crimes, Law Enforcement
Response to
Immigrant Law Enforcement
Immigrants (Policy Toward)
International Association of
Women Police
National Association of Women Law
Enforcement Executives
National Native American Law
Enforcement Association
National Organization of Black Law
Enforcement Executives
Profiling, Racial
Race Relations
Tribal Policing
Women in Federal Agency Law
Enforcement
Women in Federal Law Enforcement
Women in Policing, State
and Local
PERSONNEL ISSUES
Affirmative Action in Policing
Assaults on the Police
Body Armor
Cultural Competency/Sensitivity
Training
Drug Testing of Employees
Drug Testing of Police
Early Warning Systems
Education of Police
Evaluation of Officers
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xii——Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement: Federal
Fraternal Organizations
Hiring Standards for Police
Morale
Patrol Shifts
Patrol Work
Physical Fitness and Training
Police Corps
Police Discretion
Police Management
Police Officers’ Bill of Rights
Police Residency Requirements
Police Shootings
Police Strikes/“Blue Flu”
Police Training in the
United States
Psychologists/Psychological
Services
Quotas (Tickets, Arrests)
Rank Structure
Stress
Unions
POLICE CONDUCT
Accountability
Assaults on Police
Civil Liability
Civil Rights Violations by Police
Civilian Complaint Review
Boards
Complaints Against Police
Consent Decrees
Corruption/Integrity
Early Warning Systems
Ethics
Evaluation of Officers
Internal Affairs
Police Brutality
Police Code of Silence
Police Discretion
Police Misconduct
Police Shootings
Suicide by Cop
Use of Force
Whistle-Blowing
POLICE PROCEDURES
Arrests
Canine (K-9) Units
Chain of Custody
Confessions
Duty Belt
Electronic Surveillance
Exclusionary Rule
Eyewitnesses
Hostage Negotiations
Informants
Interrogation
Lie Detection
Lineups
Miranda Warnings
Nonlethal Weapons
Plain View Doctrine
Police Discretion
Police Pursuits
Probable Cause
Search and Seizure
Search Warrants
Stop and Frisk
SWAT Teams
Undercover Operations
Use of Force
Vehicle Searches
Video in Patrol Cars
Weapons
POLICING STRATEGIES
“Broken Windows” or Incivilities
Thesis
Community Policing
Community Relations
Compstat
Curfews
Hot Spots
Loitering
Patrol Methods, Tactics, and Strategies
Performance Evaluation of Police
Departments
Police Discretion
Problem-Oriented Policing
Quality-of-Life Enforcement
Theories of Policing
Zero Tolerance
SAFETY AND SECURITY
Airport Security
Auxiliary/Reserve/Part-Time
Police
Burns Detective Agency
Campus Policing
Emergency Services Units
National Domestic Preparedness
Office
National Guard
Peace Officers
Pinkerton National Detective
Agency
Private Policing
School Crime/Security/Response
Special Jurisdiction Law
Enforcement Agencies
Wackenhut Corporation
SPECIALIZED LAW
ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES
Amtrak Police
Campus Policing
Chaplains
Child Welfare
Housing Police
Inspectors General
Municipal Policing
National Guard
Peace Officers
Private Policing
Railroad Policing
Rural Policing
School Crime/Security/Response
Sheriffs
Special Jurisdiction Law
Enforcement Agencies
State Police
Transit Police
Tribal Policing
TACTICS
Arrests
Bombs and Bomb Squads
Canine (K-9) Units
Counterterrorism
Crime Mapping
Crime Prevention Units
Crisis Intervention
Duty Belt
Emergency Services Units
Geographic Information Systems
Hostage Negotiations
Juvenile Crimes/Programs/Units
Mentally Ill, Police Response to
Militarization of American Police
Misdemeanors
Nonlethal Weapons
Police Mediation
Radar
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Reader’s Guide——xiii
Riots/Demonstrations,
Response to
Special Victims Unit
Stop and Frisk
SWAT Teams
Task Forces
Traffic Enforcement
Truancy
Use of Force
Vehicle Searches
Weapons
TERRORISM
Chemical and Biological Terrorism,
Local Response to
Counterterrorism
Department of Homeland
Security
Emergency Services Units
Terrorist Groups, Domestic
Terrorist Groups, Foreign
USA PATRIOT Act
VICTIMS/WITNESSES
Crisis Intervention
Eyewitnesses
Federal Witness Protection Program
Lineups
National Crime Victimization
Survey
Special Victim Units
State Witness Protection Programs
Victims, Police Response to
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xv
Amendola, Karen L.
Police Foundation
Archbold, Carol A.
Marquette University
Baggett, Ryan K.
Eastern Kentucky University
Bartels, Elizabeth
John Jay College
Beckmann, John D.
New York City Police Department
Beharry, Michelle
John Jay College
Birch, Timothy K.
Excelsior College
Bolz, Frank A., Jr.
New York City Police
Department
Bracey, Dorothy H.
John Jay College
Briggs, Lisa Thomas
Western Carolina University
Brooks, Marvie
John Jay College
Bunker, Robert J.
Opposing Force Program
Butler, Richard
New Jersey State Parole Board
Byrd, Mason
Virginia Commonwealth
University
Camacho, Alisa
John Jay College
Cherry, Steven D.
Glen Rock (NJ) Police Department
Clear, Todd R.
John Jay College
Collica, Kimberly
Monroe College
Cubero, Candido
New York City Police Department
DelCastillo, Vincent
John Jay College
D’Eustachio, Peter
New York University
Diamond, Deanna L.
Sam Houston University
D’Olivo, Amy
Centenary College
Domingo, Jannette O.
John Jay College
Draper, Heather R.
Sam Houston State University
Dunham, Janice K.
John Jay College
Egan, Nancy
John Jay College
Faggiani, Donald
University of Wyoming
Feeney, George
John Jay College
Feinberg, Lotte E.
John Jay College
Freilich, Joshua D.
John Jay College
Garcia, Venessa
Kean University
Garland, Tammy S.
Sam Houston State University
Gellman, Robert
Privacy and Information Policy
Consultant
Gibbons, Mary
Attorney, private practice
Giblin, Matthew
York College of Pennsylvania
Gibson, Camille
Prairie View A & M University
Gibson, Pamela A.
Old Dominion University
Goodwin, Lorine Swainston
University of Missouri
List of Contributors
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xvi——Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement: Federal
Gormley, Paula
John Jay College
Grant, Heath B.
John Jay College
Green, Nicole R.
Oxford College
Gross, Gretchen
John Jay College
Guy, Genevieve
San Mateo, CA,
Police Department
Hassell, Kimberly D.
University of Nebraska at Omaha
Hohn, David A.
North Dakota State University
Johnston, Richard
National White Collar Crime Center
Killoran, Katherine B.
John Jay College
King, Joseph F.
John Jay College
Kiriakova, Maria
John Jay College
Koletar, Joseph W.
Ernest & Young LLP
Lacks, Brian Kessler
Virginia State Police
Lacks, Robyn Diehl
Virginia Commonwealth University
Li, Richard C.
Sam Houston State University
Linskey, Joseph P.
Centenary College
Lothridge, Kevin
National Forensic Science Technical
Center
MacNamara, Brian S.
John Jay College
Maitland, Angela S.
Indiana University
Munch, Janet Butter
Lehman College
Martin, Vertel T.
East Stroudsburg University of
Pennsylvania
Mazzone, Jason
Brooklyn Law School
McCrie, Robert D.
John Jay College
McKee, Adam
University of Arkansas at
Monticello
Mege, Jacqueline D.
New York City Police Department
Moon, Michon
Commonwealth Attorney’s Office, VA
Moore, Robert
Delta State University
Moriarty, Laura J.
Virginia Commonwealth University
Morse, Christopher
John Jay College
Munch, Janet Butler
Lahman College
Munch, Vincent A.
Metropolitan College of New York
Musluoglu, Subutay
Transit Historian
Musto, David F.
Yale University
Newbold, Katherine M.
XG Consultants Group Inc.
O’Donnell, Eugene J.
John Jay College
Parsons-Pollard, Nicolle Y.
Virginia Commonwealth University
Phillips, Nickie
John Jay College
Rebovich, Donald J.
Utica College
Richter, Michelle Y.
Sam Houston State University
Roff, Sandra Shoiock
Baruch College
Rowan, Patrick
St. Vincents Hospital
Ruegger, Stephen E.
University of Arkansasph Monticello
Santos, Nadine
Sam Houston State University
Sawers, Deborah L.
John Jay College
Scheidegger, Amie R.
Charleston Southern University
Schmitz, William
Borough of Manhattan
Community College
Schulz, David
Freelance Journalist
Schulz, Dorothy Moses
John Jay College
Schwartz, Adina
John Jay College
Sexton, Ellen
John Jay College
Sheng, Yi
Lehman College
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