Materials and process selection for engineering design

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Materials Science

“Many of the topics in the book, especially the relationship between design, ma￾terials and manufacturing, are increasingly discussed in the curricula of materials

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“This book presents a broad range of topics important for material and process

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is truly engineering- and realization-oriented and therefore particularly suited for

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Since the publication of the second edition of this book, changes have occurred in

the fields of materials and manufacturing. Industries now place more emphasis on

manufacturing products and goods locally, rather than outsourcing. Nanostructured

and smart materials appear more frequently in products, composites are used in

designing essential parts of civilian airliners, and biodegradable materials are

increasingly used instead of traditional plastics. More emphasis is now placed

on how products affect the environment, and society is willing to accept more

expensive but eco-friendly goods. In addition, there has been a change in the

emphasis and the way the subjects of materials and manufacturing are taught

within a variety of curricula and courses in higher education.

This third edition of the bestselling Materials and Process Selection for

Engineering Design has been comprehensively revised and reorganized to

reflect these changes. In addition, the presentation has been enhanced and the

book includes more real-world case studies.

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MATERIALS and PROCESS SELECTION

for ENGINEERING DESIGN Farag

Third Edition

MATERIALS and

PROCESS SELECTION for

ENGINEERING DESIGN

Mahmoud M. Farag

Third

Edition

www.crcpress.com

K16023

K16023 cvr mech.indd 1 10/17/13 10:43 AM

MATERIALS and

PROCESS SELECTION for

ENGINEERING DESIGN

Third Edition

MATERIALS and

PROCESS SELECTION for

ENGINEERING DESIGN

Mahmoud M. Farag

Third Edition

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To

Penelope, Serif, Sophie, Eamon, Hisham, Nadia, and Nadine

vii

Contents

Preface to the Third Edition ...................................................................................xix

Preface to the Second Edition.................................................................................xxi

Author .................................................................................................................. xxiii

Chapter 1 Product Design and Development in the Industrial Enterprise............1

1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................1

1.2 Feasibility Study, Identification of Needs, and Concept

Selection ....................................................................................2

1.2.1 Market Research...........................................................2

1.2.2 Customer Needs and Product Specifications ...............2

1.2.3 Concept Generation, Screening, and Selection ............5

1.2.4 Economic Analysis.......................................................5

1.2.5 Selecting an Optimum Solution ...................................5

1.3 System-Level Design.................................................................9

1.4 Detail Design and Selection of Materials and Processes........ 12

1.4.1 Configuration (Embodiment) Design......................... 12

1.4.2 Final Detail Design .................................................... 13

1.4.3 Design Reviews.......................................................... 13

1.5 Testing and Refinement ........................................................... 13

1.6 Launching the Product ............................................................ 14

1.6.1 Project Planning and Scheduling ............................... 14

1.6.2 Manufacturing............................................................ 15

1.6.3 Quality Control........................................................... 16

1.6.4 Packaging ................................................................... 17

1.6.5 Marketing ................................................................... 17

1.6.6 After-Sales Service..................................................... 17

1.7 Selling the Product .................................................................. 17

1.7.1 Cost of Product Engineering ...................................... 18

1.7.2 Actual Manufacturing Cost........................................ 18

1.7.3 Sales Expense and Administrative Cost.....................20

1.7.4 Selling Price ...............................................................20

1.8 Planning for Retirement of the Product and

Environmental Considerations................................................20

1.8.1 Recycling of Materials...............................................20

1.8.2 Sources of Materials for Recycling............................ 21

1.8.3 Infrastructure for Recycling Packaging Materials.....22

1.8.4 Sorting........................................................................22

1.8.5 Scrap Processing ........................................................23

1.8.6 Recyclability of Materials..........................................24

1.9 Product Market Cycle..............................................................24

viii Contents

1.10 Summary .................................................................................25

Review Questions...............................................................................26

Bibliography and Further Readings...................................................27

Part I Performance of Materials in Service

Chapter 2 Failure under Mechanical Loading .................................................... 33

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 33

2.2 Types of Mechanical Failures.................................................. 33

2.3 Fracture Toughness and Fracture Mechanics..........................34

2.3.1 Flaw Detection ........................................................... 35

2.3.2 Fracture Toughness of Materials................................36

2.4 Ductile and Brittle Fractures...................................................40

2.4.1 Ductile Fractures........................................................40

2.4.2 Brittle Fractures.......................................................... 41

2.4.3 Ductile–Brittle Transition .......................................... 43

2.4.4 Design and Manufacturing Considerations................ 45

2.5 Fatigue Failures....................................................................... 45

2.5.1 Types of Fatigue Loading...........................................48

2.5.2 Fatigue Strength .........................................................49

2.5.3 Crack Initiation...........................................................50

2.5.4 Crack Propagation ...................................................... 51

2.6 Elevated-Temperature Failures................................................ 52

2.6.1 Creep .......................................................................... 53

2.6.2 Combined Creep and Fatigue..................................... 55

2.6.3 Thermal Fatigue ......................................................... 55

2.7 Failure Analysis: Experimental Methods................................56

2.8 Failure Analysis: Analytical Techniques................................. 57

2.8.1 Root Cause Analysis .................................................. 57

2.8.2 Fault Tree Analysis..................................................... 58

2.8.3 Failure Logic Model...................................................63

2.8.4 Failure Experience Matrix .........................................64

2.8.5 Expert Systems...........................................................65

2.9 Failure Prevention at the Design Stage....................................65

2.10 Failure Mode Effect Analysis..................................................66

2.11 Summary .................................................................................68

Review Questions...............................................................................68

Bibliography and Further Readings...................................................69

Chapter 3 Corrosion, Wear, and Degradation of Materials................................ 71

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 71

3.2 Electrochemical Principles of Metallic Corrosion ..................72

Contents ix

3.3 Types of Metallic Corrosion....................................................73

3.3.1 General Corrosion ...................................................... 76

3.3.2 Galvanic Corrosion .................................................... 76

3.3.3 Crevice Corrosion.......................................................77

3.3.4 Pitting Corrosion ........................................................ 78

3.3.5 Intergranular Corrosion.............................................. 78

3.3.6 Selective Leaching .....................................................80

3.4 Combined Action of Stress and Corrosion..............................80

3.4.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking..........................................80

3.4.2 Corrosion Fatigue ....................................................... 81

3.4.3 Erosion Corrosion.......................................................82

3.4.4 Cavitation Damage.....................................................82

3.4.5 Fretting Corrosion ......................................................82

3.5 Corrosion of Plastics and Ceramics.........................................82

3.5.1 Corrosion of Plastics ..................................................83

3.5.2 Corrosion of Ceramics ...............................................84

3.6 Oxidation of Materials ............................................................84

3.6.1 Oxidation of Metals....................................................84

3.6.2 Oxidation of Plastics ..................................................87

3.6.3 Oxidation of Ceramics...............................................87

3.7 Corrosion Control....................................................................87

3.7.1 Galvanic Protection....................................................87

3.7.2 Inhibitors....................................................................89

3.8 Wear Failures...........................................................................89

3.8.1 Adhesive Wear............................................................90

3.8.2 Abrasive, Erosive, and Cavitation Wear.....................92

3.8.3 Surface Fatigue...........................................................92

3.8.4 Lubrication .................................................................92

3.9 Radiation Damage ...................................................................94

3.9.1 Radiation Damage by Electromagnetic Radiation.....94

3.9.2 Radiation Damage by Particles..................................95

3.10 Summary .................................................................................95

Review Questions...............................................................................96

Bibliography and Further Readings...................................................96

Chapter 4 Selection of Materials to Resist Failure .............................................99

4.1 Introduction .............................................................................99

4.2 Grouping and Identifying Engineering Materials...................99

4.2.1 Classification and Designation of Engineering

Materials.....................................................................99

4.2.2 Considerations in Material Selection .......................100

4.3 Selection of Materials for Static Strength .............................100

4.3.1 Aspects of Static Strength ........................................100

4.3.2 Level of Strength ...................................................... 101

4.3.3 Load-Carrying Capacity .......................................... 101

x Contents

4.4 Selection of Materials for Stiffness....................................... 104

4.4.1 Effect of Material Stiffness on Deflection under

Load.......................................................................... 104

4.4.2 Specific Stiffness...................................................... 107

4.4.3 Effect of Material Stiffness on Buckling Strength...... 108

4.5 Selection of Materials for Higher Toughness........................ 110

4.5.1 Metallic Materials.................................................... 110

4.5.2 Plastics and Composites........................................... 114

4.5.3 Ceramics................................................................... 115

4.6 Selection of Materials for Fatigue Resistance ....................... 115

4.6.1 Steels and Cast Irons................................................ 117

4.6.2 Nonferrous Alloys.................................................... 118

4.6.3 Plastics...................................................................... 118

4.6.4 Composite Materials ................................................ 118

4.7 Selection of Materials for High-Temperature Resistance...... 119

4.7.1 Creep Resistance of Metals...................................... 119

4.7.2 Performance of Plastics at High Temperatures........120

4.7.3 Widely Used Materials for High-Temperature

Applications..............................................................120

4.7.3.1 Room Temperature to 150°C (300°F).......120

4.7.3.2 150°C–400°C (300°F–750°F) .................. 121

4.7.3.3 400°C–600°C (750°F–1100°F)................. 121

4.7.3.4 600°C–1000°C (1100°F–1830°F) ............. 122

4.7.3.5 1000°C (1830°F) and Above..................... 123

4.7.4 Niobium, Tantalum, and Tungsten ........................... 123

4.7.5 Ceramics................................................................... 123

4.8 Selection of Materials for Corrosion Resistance ...................126

4.8.1 Corrosive Medium Parameters.................................126

4.8.2 Design Parameters.................................................... 127

4.8.3 Material Parameters................................................. 127

4.8.4 Carbon Steels and Cast Irons................................... 127

4.8.5 Stainless Steel........................................................... 127

4.8.6 Nickel ....................................................................... 129

4.8.7 Copper...................................................................... 130

4.8.8 Tin ............................................................................ 130

4.8.9 Lead.......................................................................... 130

4.8.10 Aluminum ................................................................ 130

4.8.11 Titanium ................................................................... 131

4.8.12 Tantalum and Zirconium.......................................... 132

4.8.13 Metallic Glasses....................................................... 132

4.8.14 Plastics and Fiber-Reinforced Plastics ..................... 132

4.8.15 Ceramic Materials.................................................... 133

4.8.16 Other Means of Resisting Corrosion........................ 133

4.9 Coatings for Protection against Corrosion ............................ 133

4.9.1 Metallic Coatings..................................................... 134

Contents xi

4.9.2 Organic Coatings...................................................... 134

4.9.3 Vitreous Enamels ..................................................... 134

4.10 Selection of Materials for Wear Resistance........................... 136

4.10.1 Wear Resistance of Steels ........................................ 137

4.10.2 Wear Resistance of Cast Irons.................................. 138

4.10.3 Nonferrous Alloys for Wear Applications................ 138

4.10.4 Wear Resistance of Plastics...................................... 139

4.10.5 Wear Resistance of Ceramics................................... 140

4.11 Wear-Resistant Coatings........................................................ 140

4.12 Summary ............................................................................... 141

Review Questions............................................................................. 142

Bibliography and Further Readings................................................. 144

Part II  Relationships between Design, Materials,

and Manufacturing Processes

Chapter 5 Nature of Engineering Design.......................................................... 149

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 149

5.2 General Considerations in Engineering Design .................... 150

5.2.1 Human Factors ......................................................... 150

5.2.2 Industrial Design, Esthetic, and Marketing

Considerations.......................................................... 151

5.2.3 Environmental Considerations................................. 151

5.2.4 Functional Requirements ......................................... 152

5.3 Design for Six Sigma............................................................. 152

5.4 Major Phases of Design......................................................... 153

5.4.1 Preliminary and Conceptual Design........................ 155

5.4.2 Configuration (Embodiment) Design....................... 155

5.4.3 Detail (Parametric) Design ...................................... 156

5.5 Environmentally Responsible Design ................................... 157

5.6 Design Codes and Standards................................................. 157

5.7 Effect of Component Geometry ............................................ 158

5.7.1 Stress-Concentration Factor..................................... 158

5.7.2 Stress Concentration in Fatigue................................ 159

5.7.3 Guidelines for Design............................................... 159

5.8 Factor of Safety...................................................................... 162

5.9 Reliability of Components..................................................... 164

5.10 Product Reliability and Safety............................................... 167

5.11 Product Liability.................................................................... 169

5.12 Summary ............................................................................... 170

Review Questions............................................................................. 170

Bibliography and Further Readings................................................. 171

xii Contents

Chapter 6 Effect of Material Properties on Design .......................................... 173

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 173

6.2 Designing for Static Strength ................................................ 173

6.2.1 Designing for Simple Axial Loading ....................... 173

6.2.2 Designing for Torsional Loading ............................. 174

6.2.3 Designing for Bending ............................................. 175

6.3 Designing for Stiffness.......................................................... 176

6.3.1 Design of Beams ...................................................... 177

6.3.2 Design of Shafts....................................................... 179

6.3.3 Design of Columns................................................... 179

6.4 Designing with High-Strength, Low-Toughness

Materials ...............................................................................180

6.4.1 Fail-Safe Design....................................................... 181

6.4.2 Guidelines for Design............................................... 182

6.4.3 Leak-before-Burst..................................................... 183

6.5 Designing against Fatigue ..................................................... 184

6.5.1 Factors Affecting Fatigue Behavior ......................... 184

6.5.1.1 Endurance-Limit-Modifying Factors ....... 185

6.5.2 Effect of Mean Stress............................................... 189

6.5.3 Cumulative Fatigue Damage .................................... 190

6.5.4 Other Fatigue Design Criteria .................................. 191

6.6 Designing under High-Temperature Conditions.................... 191

6.6.1 Design Guidelines.................................................... 192

6.6.2 Larson–Miller Parameter......................................... 194

6.6.3 Life under Variable Loading .................................... 196

6.6.4 Life under Combined Fatigue and Creep

Loading .............................................................. 196

6.7 Designing for Hostile Environments..................................... 196

6.7.1 Design Guidelines.................................................... 196

6.8 Designing with Specific Materials (Material-Specific

Design Features).................................................................... 197

6.8.1 Designing with Metallic Materials .......................... 197

6.8.2 Designing with Polymers......................................... 199

6.8.3 Designing with Ceramics.........................................200

6.8.4 Designing with Composites ..................................... 201

6.9 Summary ...............................................................................203

Review Questions.............................................................................204

Bibliography and Further Readings.................................................206

Chapter 7 Effect of Manufacturing Processes on Design.................................209

7.1 Introduction ...........................................................................209

7.2 Product Manufacture in the Industrial Enterprise.................209

7.3 Classification of Manufacturing Processes ........................... 210

7.3.1 Processing of Metallic Materials ............................. 210

7.3.2 Processing of Plastic Parts ....................................... 212

Contents xiii

7.3.3 Processing of Ceramic Products .............................. 212

7.3.4 Manufacture of Reinforced Plastic Components ..... 212

7.3.5 Manufacture of Reinforced Metal Components....... 213

7.4 Selection of Manufacturing Processes.................................. 213

7.5 Design for Manufacture and Assembly................................. 218

7.6 Design Considerations for Cast Components........................220

7.6.1 Guidelines for Design...............................................223

7.6.2 Effect of Material Properties....................................223

7.7 Design Considerations for Molded Plastic Components.......224

7.7.1 Guidelines for Design...............................................225

7.7.2 Accuracy of Molded Parts........................................227

7.8 Design Considerations for Forged Components....................227

7.8.1 Guidelines for Design...............................................228

7.9 Design Considerations for Powder Metallurgy Parts............229

7.9.1 Guidelines for Design...............................................229

7.10 Design of Sheet Metal Parts.................................................. 231

7.10.1 Guidelines for Design............................................... 231

7.11 Designs Involving Joining Processes .................................... 232

7.11.1 Welding .................................................................... 232

7.11.1.1 Weldability of Materials...........................234

7.11.1.2 Tolerances in Welded Joints...................... 235

7.11.1.3 Guidelines for the Design of Weldments.....235

7.11.1.4 Types of Welded Joints.............................236

7.11.1.5 Strength of Welded Joints.........................236

7.11.2 Adhesive Bonding ....................................................238

7.11.2.1 Design of Adhesive Joints......................... 239

7.12 Designs Involving Heat Treatment........................................ 239

7.13 Designs Involving Machining Processes...............................240

7.13.1 Machinability Index .................................................240

7.13.2 Guidelines for Design............................................... 241

7.14 Automation of Manufacturing Processes..............................246

7.15 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing.....................................246

7.16 Summary ...............................................................................247

Review Questions.............................................................................248

Bibliography and Further Readings ................................................. 251

Part III Selection and Substitution of Materials

and Processes in Industry

Chapter 8 Economics and Environmental Impact of Materials and

Processes ......................................................................................255

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 255

8.2 Elements of the Cost of Materials.........................................256

8.2.1 Cost of Ore Preparation............................................256

xiv Contents

8.2.2 Cost of Extraction from the Ore...............................256

8.2.3 Cost of Purity and Alloying ..................................... 257

8.2.4 Cost of Conversion to Semifinished Products..........258

8.2.5 Cost of Conversion to Finished Products.................258

8.3 Factors Affecting Material Prices.........................................258

8.3.1 General Inflation and Price Fluctuations .................259

8.3.2 Supply and Demand .................................................259

8.3.3 Order Size.................................................................259

8.3.4 Standardization of Grades and Sizes .......................259

8.3.5 Inventory Costs.........................................................260

8.3.6 Cost Extras for Special Quality................................260

8.3.7 Geographic Location................................................260

8.4 Comparison of Materials on Cost Basis................................260

8.5 Value Analysis of Material Properties ..................................263

8.6 Economics of Material Utilization ........................................264

8.7 Economic Competition in the Materials Field ......................268

8.7.1 Legislation................................................................268

8.7.2 Cost Saving...............................................................268

8.7.3 Superior Performance...............................................269

8.8 Processing Time ....................................................................269

8.8.1 Elements of Processing Time...................................269

8.9 Processing Cost ..................................................................... 270

8.9.1 Rules of Thumb........................................................ 270

8.9.2 Standard Costs.......................................................... 270

8.9.3 Technical Cost Modeling ......................................... 272

8.10 Economics of Time-Saving Devices..................................... 272

8.11 Cost–Benefit and Cost-Effectiveness Analyses..................... 275

8.12 Environmental Impact Assessment of Materials and

Processes ...............................................................................277

8.12.1 Environmental Considerations.................................277

8.12.2 Energy Content of Materials.................................... 279

8.12.3 Life Cycle Assessment ............................................. 281

8.13 Recyclability of Engineering Materials and Recycling

Economics.............................................................................283

8.14 Life Cycle Cost......................................................................285

8.15 Summary ...............................................................................287

Review Questions.............................................................................288

Bibliography and Further Readings.................................................290

Chapter 9 Materials Selection Process ............................................................. 291

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 291

9.2 Nature of the Selection Process.............................................292

9.3 Analysis of the Material Performance Requirements and

Creating Alternative Solutions ..............................................294

9.3.1 Functional Requirements .........................................294