Handbook of cosmetic science and technology second edition

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edited by

Marc Paye

Colgate–Palmolive R & D

Milmort, Belgium

André O. Barel

Vrije Universiteit

Brussels, Belgium

Howard I. Maibach

University of California Hospital

San Francisco, California, U.S.A.

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Cover Illustration: Marianne Mahieu

Published in 2006 by

CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Group

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Preface

In 2001, we published the first edition of the Handbook of Cosmetic Science and

Technology with 71 chapters written by leading experts in their field of cosmetology,

who have largely contributed to the international success of the Handbook.

Since publication, comments were collected from readers and reviewers to

detect improvements that could be added to this edition. Most feedback was highly

positive as illustrated by some of the following: ‘‘ ... excellent overall coverage of

most aspect of cosmetology ... ;’’ ‘‘ ... contains a lot of scientific information about

the physical properties of cosmetic ingredients ... ;’’ ‘‘ ... an excellent balance of

authors from major cosmetic houses and with many academic leaders coming from a

huge range of countries provides an international view of cosmetics... ;’’ ‘‘ ... an exten￾sive and comprehensive index can be considered as a measure of the book’s value ... .’’

This feedback was highly appreciated and motivated us in continuing the adventure

and in initiating a second edition that, we hope, will receive the same success as the

first one.

Like in all first editions, a few improvements were suggested and were taken

into account; it was mainly to develop a more systematic chapter organization as

well as making some chapters more accessible and readable for nonexpert readers.

Furthermore, cosmetology is, today, a fast moving science with new ingredients,

new technologies, and changing regulations. Thus, it was necessary to publish a

second edition to remain an up-to-date and practical Handbook of Cosmetic Science

and Technology.

The objectives pursued with the second edition are multiple. Most chapters,

recognized as essential for the cosmetologist, were kept but simplified, reviewed

for overlapping with others, made more readable, and mainly updated with new

developments or new anticipated trends. Some chapters had to be largely revisited

such as in Part VI: Regulatory and Safety Considerations, that is probably the fastest

changing field. Many chapters were added to cover new ingredients and technologies

identified by the editors. That is mainly evident in Part III: Cosmetic Ingredients

where many new, active, and promising ingredients have emerged. Testing the pro￾ducts has also improved, in terms of physicochemistry as well as in cell culture mod￾els or in skin measuring techniques. Chapters were added or re-designed to reflect

such an evolution. Finally, some gaps in the first edition were filled with chapters

on additional product types, adding more emphasis on ethnic skin and its differences

in cosmetics requirements.

iii

The editors are grateful to the authors, who contributed to the previous edition

and updated their chapters, and to the new authors who agreed to share their experi￾ences on emerging subjects, sometimes with unpublished information.

Finally, it is anticipated that future editions will benefit in the same way as this

edition, from readers’ suggested additions, deletions, and improvements.

Marc Paye

Andre´ O. Barel

Howard I. Maibach

iv Preface

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Contributors. . . . . .................................. xxiii

1. Introduction . . . . . . .................................. 1

Marc Paye, Andre´ O. Barel, and Howard I. Maibach

PART I. TARGET ORGANS FOR COSMETIC PRODUCTS

2. The Microscopic Structure of the Epidermis and Its Derivatives . . . . 5

Joel J. Elias

References . . . . 13

3. Racial (Ethnic) Differences in Skin Properties . . . . . . ......... 15

Naissan O. Wesley and Howard I. Maibach

Introduction . . . . 15

Transepidermal Water Loss . . . . 17

Water Content . . . . 22

Corneocyte Variability . . . . 26

Blood Vessel Reactivity . . . . 27

Elastic Recovery/Extensibility . . . . 31

pH Gradient . . . . 34

Lipid Content . . . . 34

Surface Microflora . . . . 38

Mast Cell Granules . . . . 39

Epidermal Innervation . . . . 39

Conclusion . . . . 40

References . . . . 42

4. The Human Periorbital Wrinkle . . ....................... 45

Ian Scott and Martin Green

Wrinkles as an Aspect of Aged Skin . . . . 45

Local Differences in the Wrinkle Compared

to Surrounding Skin . . . . 46

v

Computer Model of the Periorbital Wrinkle . . . . 48

Origin of the Aligned Collagen Layer . . . . 50

Implications for Treatment of Wrinkles . . . . 51

References . . . . 51

5. Filaggrin and Dry Skin . .............................. 53

Ian Scott

Introduction . . . . 53

Filaggrin Genotype as the Major Determinant

of Susceptibility to Dry Skin . . . . 54

The Life Cycle of Filaggrin . . . . 55

Filaggrin and the Natural Moisturizing Factor . . . . 56

Perspective on Profilaggrin and Filaggrin Functions . . . . 57

References . . . . 59

6. Hair . . . . . . . ..................................... 61

Dominique Van Neste

Introduction: What Is Hair? . . . . 61

Where Does Hair Come From? . . . . 67

Clinical Hair Growth Evaluation Methods . . . . 70

Basics About Psychosocial Aspects of Hair . . . . 83

References . . . . 84

7. The Normal Nail . . . . . . .............................. 89

Josette Andre´

Anatomy . . . . 89

Histology . . . . 90

Physicochemistry . . . . 95

Physiology . . . . 95

Aesthetics . . . . 96

References . . . . 96

PART II. COSMETIC VEHICLES

8. Main Cosmetic Vehicles . .............................. 99

Stephan Buchmann

Introduction . . . . 99

Function of Vehicles . . . . 99

Classification Systems of Vehicles . . . . 101

Description and Definition of Main Vehicles . . . . 104

Functional Design, Composition, and Resulting Effect . . . . 112

Preparation Methods . . . . 120

Characterization . . . . 120

References . . . . 122

vi Contents

9. Encapsulation to Deliver Topical Actives . . . ............... 125

Joce´lia Jansen and Howard I. Maibach

Introduction . . . . 125

Design Aspects of a Vector . . . . 125

Properties of a Vector . . . . 131

Dermatological and Cosmetic Uses of Encapsulation . . . . 133

The Future of Encapsulation . . . . 139

References . . . . 140

10. Encapsulation Using Porous Microspheres . . ............... 145

Jorge Heller, Subhash J. Saxena, and John Barr

Introduction . . . . 145

Porous Microspheres . . . . 146

Applications . . . . 148

Conclusions . . . . 153

References . . . . 153

11. Liposomes ....................................... 155

Hans Lautenschla¨ ger

Introduction . . . . 155

Phosphatidylcholine . . . . 155

Liposomes . . . . 157

Availability . . . . 160

Applications . . . . 160

The Future of Liposomal Preparations . . . . 162

References . . . . 162

12. Novel Liposomes . . . ................................ 165

Brian C. Keller

Introduction . . . . 165

Colloidal Organization . . . . 166

New Spontaneous, Thermodynamically Stable (STS)

Liposomes . . . . 167

Utility . . . . 170

Encapsulation Efficiency . . . . 171

Skin Penetration . . . . 172

Cosmetic Applications . . . . 172

Conclusion . . . . 173

References . . . . 173

13. Elastic Vesicles as Topical/Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems . . 175

Myeong Jun Choi and Howard I. Maibach

Introduction . . . . 175

Elastic Vesicles–Skin Interaction . . . . 176

Transfersomes . . . . 177

Contents vii

Effect of Type Surfactants and Concentration . . . . 178

Non-Phospholipid-Based Elastic Vesicles . . . . 180

Ethosomes . . . . 181

Action Mechanism of Elastic Vesicles on Penetration . . . . 183

Conclusions . . . . 185

References . . . . 185

14. Topical Delivery by Iontophoresis . ...................... 189

Ve´ronique Preat and Valentin Wascotte

Introduction . . . . 189

Iontophoresis . . . . 189

Mechanisms of Iontophoretic Transport . . . . 190

Parameters Affecting Iontophoretic Delivery . . . . 191

Effects of Iontophoresis on the Skin: Safety Issues . . . . 192

Topical Delivery of Drugs and Cosmetics by Iontophoresis . . . . 194

Conclusions . . . . 195

References . . . . 196

15. Using Iontophoresis to Enhance Cosmetics Delivery . . . ........ 201

Dov Tamarkin

Introduction . . . . 201

Delivering Actives to the Skin . . . . 201

Iontophoresis . . . . 202

Influence of the Energy Source . . . . 203

Influence of the Formulation . . . . 204

Electrolytes in the Formulation . . . . 205

Examples of Cosmetic Iontophoresis . . . . 205

Iontophoresis Devices . . . . 207

Conclusion . . . . 208

References . . . . 208

16. Cosmetic Patches . . . . . ............................. 211

Spiros A. Fotinos

Introduction . . . . 211

History and Evolution . . . . 211

Borders Between Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Patches . . . . 212

Applications of Cosmetic Patches . . . . 212

Differences Between Classical Cosmetic Forms

and Patches . . . . 213

Development of Cosmetic Patches . . . . 213

Types and Configuration . . . . 214

Structural Components of the Cosmetic Patches . . . . 216

Production Steps . . . . 219

Regulatory Issues . . . . 219

Future Trends . . . . 220

viii Contents

PART III. COSMETIC INGREDIENTS

17. Antibacterial Agents and Preservatives . . . . . ............... 223

Franc¸oise Siquet and Michel J. Devleeschouwer

Introduction . . . . 223

Antibacterial Products . . . . 225

Methods to Demonstrate Antimicrobial Product Efficacy . . . . 226

Preservation and Preservative Systems . . . . 228

References . . . . 230

18. Colorants . ....................................... 233

Gisbert Ottersta¨tter

References . . . . 245

19. Skin Feel Agents . . . ................................ 247

Germaine Zocchi

Introduction . . . . 247

Emollients and Refatteners . . . . 248

Humectants . . . . 254

Polymers . . . . 255

Surfactants . . . . 260

Exfoliating Agents . . . . 262

Conclusions . . . . 262

References . . . . 263

20. Hydrating Substances . . . . . . . . . ...................... 265

Marie Lode´n

Introduction . . . . 265

Butylene Glycol . . . . 266

Glycerin . . . . 268

Hyaluronic Acid . . . . 269

Lactic Acid . . . . 270

Panthenol . . . . 271

PCA and Salts of PCA . . . . 272

Propylene Glycol . . . . 273

Proteins . . . . 274

Sorbitol . . . . 274

Urea . . . . 275

Conclusions . . . . 276

References . . . . 276

21. Ceramides and Lipids ................................ 281

B. B. Michniak and P. W. Wertz

Historical Perspectives . . . . 281

Ceramides from Epidermis . . . . 282

Lipids from Other Keratinized Tissues . . . . 285

Contents ix

Commercially Available Ceramides . . . . 286

Future Directions . . . . 286

References . . . . 287

22. Silicones—A Key Ingredient in Cosmetic and Toiletry Formulations 289

Janet Blakely and Isabelle Van Reeth

Unique Materials . . . . 289

Siloxane Backbone . . . . 289

Pendant Organic Groups . . . . 290

Key Ingredients in the Cosmetics and Toiletries Industry . . . . 290

Skin Care, Sun Care, and Decorative Products . . . . 292

Hair Care Products . . . . 295

Longer Lasting Permanent Wave and Coloring Products . . . . 297

Antiperspirant and Deodorant Products . . . . 297

References . . . . 297

23. UV Filters . . . .................................... 299

Stanley B. Levy

Introduction . . . . 299

Definitions . . . . 299

History . . . . 300

Regulatory . . . . 300

Mechanism of Action . . . . 304

Nomenclature . . . . 304

Individual UV Filters . . . . 304

UVB . . . . 304

UVA . . . . 307

Adverse Reactions—Toxicity . . . . 308

Conclusion . . . . 309

References . . . . 310

24. Skin Whitening: Ellagic Acid . . . . ...................... 313

Yoshimasa Tanaka

General Properties . . . . 313

In Vitro Studies . . . . 313

Animal Studies . . . . 314

Effect on Human Skin . . . . 316

References . . . . 318

25. Skin Whitening: New Hydroquinone Combination . . . . ........ 319

Leslie S. Baumann and Lucy K. Martin

Disorders of Pigmentation . . . . 319

Other Pigmentation Disorders . . . . 320

A New Prescription Combination Therapy—Triluma . . . . 322

Summary . . . . 323

References . . . . 324

x Contents

26. Alpha Hydroxy Acids . . . . . . . . . ...................... 327

M. Carrera, G. Primavera, and E. Berardesca

References . . . . 331

27. Surfactants ....................................... 333

Takamitsu Tamura

Solution Properties of Surfactants . . . . 333

Foaming Properties of Surfactants . . . . 337

Adsorption of Surfactants . . . . 340

References . . . . 343

28. Classification of Surfactants . . . . . ...................... 347

Louis Oldenhove de Guertechin

Introduction . . . . 347

Ionic Surfactants . . . . 347

Nonionic Surfactants . . . . 359

Nonhydrocarbon Specialty Surfactants . . . . 365

Further Reading . . . . 366

29. Anti-Irritants for Surfactant-Based Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

Marc Paye

Anti-Irritation by Using Only Mild Surfactants . . . . 370

Anti-Irritation by an Appropriate Combination

of Surfactants . . . . 370

Anti-Irritation by Polymers or Proteins/Peptides . . . . 371

Anti-Irritation by Refattening Agents . . . . 371

Anti-Inflammatory Effect . . . . 372

Antioxidants . . . . 372

Antisensory Irritation . . . . 372

Magnesium Is Not an Anti-Irritant for Surfactants . . . . 374

Conclusion . . . . 375

References . . . . 375

30. Seawater Salts: Effect on Inflammatory Skin Disease: An Overview 377

Ivy Lee and Howard I. Maibach

Seawater . . . . 377

Cations . . . . 378

Anions . . . . 383

References . . . . 383

31. Antioxidants . . . . . . ................................ 385

Stefan U. Weber, Claude Saliou, Lester Packer, and John K. Lodge

Introduction . . . . 385

Vitamin E . . . . 386

Vitamin C . . . . 387

Thiol Antioxidants . . . . 388

Contents xi

Polyphenols . . . . 389

The Antioxidant Network . . . . 390

Regulation of Gene Transcription by Antioxidants . . . . 392

Perspectives . . . . 392

References . . . . 393

32. Dexpanthenol . .................................... 399

Ehrhardt Proksch and Jens-Michael Jensen

Introduction . . . . 399

Biophysiology and Absorption . . . . 399

Modes of Administration . . . . 399

Indications and Clinical Applications . . . . 400

Side Effects, Contra-indications, and Product Safety . . . . 403

Conclusion . . . . 403

References . . . . 404

33. Hair Conditioners . . . . . ............................. 407

Charles Reich, Dean Su, and Cheryl Kozubal

Introduction . . . . 407

Conditioning and the Hair Fiber Surface . . . . 407

Commercial Conditioners . . . . 411

Conclusion . . . . 421

References . . . . 421

PART IV. COSMETIC PRODUCTS

34. Skin Care Products . . . . ............................. 427

Howard Epstein

An Overview of Emulsion-Based Skincare Products . . . . 427

Formulating Hydrating Creams and Lotions . . . . 429

Oil-in-Water Emulsions . . . . 430

Other Ingredients . . . . 433

Skin Care Emulsions for the Aging Population . . . . 435

Formulating for Immediate Improvement in Appearance and

Texture of Skin . . . . 436

Future Formulation Challenges . . . . 439

References . . . . 439

35. Antiwrinkle Products . . . ............................. 441

William J. Cunningham

Introduction . . . . 441

Background . . . . 441

Prevention of Wrinkles of Photoaging . . . . 442

Substantiation of Antiwrinkle Claims . . . . 442

Representative Products for Wrinkles . . . . 443

xii Contents