Handbook of automotive human factors

Handbook of Automotive

Human Factors

Edited by:

Motoyuki Akamatsu

Automotive Human Factors Research Center, AIST, Tsukuba, Japan

For:

Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan, Inc.

A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK

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A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK

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Names: Akamatsu, Motoyuki, 1955- editor.

Title: Handbook of automotive human factors / editor Motoyuki Akamatsu

(Automotive Human Factors Research Center, AIST, Tsukuba, Japan, for

Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan, Inc.).

Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2019. | “A

science publishers book.’’ | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019010287 | ISBN 9780367203573 (hardback)

Subjects: LCSH: Automobile driving--Human factors. | Automobile

driving--Physiological aspects. | Automobiles--Design and construction. |

Human engineering.

Classification: LCC TL250 .H285 2019 | DDC 629.2/31--dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019010287

Foreword

Motoyuki Akamatsu goes by Moto, an apt name given his interest in motor vehicles.

Over the decades I have known Moto, I have continued to be impressed with his vast

knowledge of the history of motor vehicle development, his grasp of fundamental

human factors issues, his insights into how Japanese culture influences research and

implementation, and with the rigor of his research. About 10 years ago Moto and I

collaborated (with others) on a strategic review of human factors activities at Nissan

and Renault. After one of those meetings, our hosts took us to a car museum near

Paris, and the background knowledge Moto provided was impressive. Several years

ago, we collaborated on a paper on the history of automotive factors (Akamatsu et al.,

2013). Collectively, these interactions set up high expectations, and of course, Moto’s

book delivers as expected.

Moto’s book contains 6 chapters that complement the existing literature. The

first chapter is an overview of automotive human factors, emphasizing contemporary

issues. The second chapter concerns the automotive development process, primarily

from the view of a researcher. It emphasizes commonly used tools and methods

(surveys, simulators, on-road testing). This material is extremely valuable,

particularly to researchers beginning in this field. Those interested in the development

process should also look at the literature on user experience methods (journey maps,

personas, use cases, etc.) given the widespread use in the auto industry. The third

chapter concerns occupant comfort and interior quality, a topic that receives scant

attention in automotive human factors conferences or journals, but is of great internal

interest to automotive manufacturers and suppliers, as comfort and interior quality

often determine what customers buy. Those interested in this topic should look at

the literature on Quality Function Deployment (QFD)/House of Quality, literature

so substantial that it would have been difficult to cram into this chapter. Chapter 4

concerns driver state, which now is a critical topic given increasing interest in the

automation of driving. A well-studied issue is transfer of control, a topic for which this

chapter provides valuable background. Chapter 5 concerns 4 topics: driver workload,

driver interfaces, distraction measurement, and driver assistance systems, and is the

longest chapter in the book. Chapter 6, concerning driver models, includes some

important models that are not commonly covered in automotive human factors texts.

In a foreword, one is encouraged to proclaim that a tome is the greatest volume

since the Bible/Quran/etc. Moto’s book is quite useful, but not at that biblical level.

Probably the best overall reference on automotive human factors is Bhise’s (2016)

book (Ergonomics in the Automotive Design Process), which incorporates much

of what Bhise learned during his long career at Ford. Moto’s book was written to

iv Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

complement Bhise’s book, which it does quite well. Moto’s book also complements

Peacock and Karwowski (1993), a now dated and less comprehensive alternative to

Bhise’s book.

So, what are the alternatives to Moto’s book? Quite frankly, there is nothing that

blends applications and research as this book does except for Gkikas (2013), which is

a useful edited collection of chapters, but not as well integrated as Moto’s book, as it

is not of a single mind.

There are also several books that focus on contemporary issues. They include

Cacciabue’s (2007) edited book on modeling driver performance and 3 books

concerned with driver distraction—Regan et al. (2009)—the widely cited classic,

Rupp’s 2010 book on distraction measurement, and Regan et al. (2013), one of the

more recent collections. Somewhat related is the Walker et al. (2015) edited volume

that also deals with advanced vehicle technology. Finally, 2 other references worthy of

note are Fisher et al. (2011), an encyclopedic book on driving simulation and Smiley

(2015), one of many books on the forensic aspects of traffic safety from Lawyers and

Judges Publishing.

So, what should one have on their bookshelf and read? I would start with Bhise

and then read Moto Akamatsu’s book. After that, it would depend on what one is

interested in—new technology in general, distraction, driving simulation, or some

other topic. In addition, I would also strongly encourage everyone to read SAE

Recommended Practice J2944 (Operational Definitions of Driving Performance

Measures and Statistics).

References

Akamatsu, M., P. Green and K. Bengler. (2013). Automotive technology and human factors research:

Past, present, and future. International Journal of Vehicular Technology.

Bhise, V.D. (2016). Ergonomics in the Automotive Design Process. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Cacciabue, P.C. (2007). Modelling Driver Behaviour in Automotive Environments: Critical Issues in

Driver Interactions with Intelligent Transport Systems. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag New

York.

Gkikas, N. (2016). Automotive Ergonomics: Driver-Vehicle Interaction. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Peacock, B. and W. Karwowski (eds.). (1993). Automotive Ergonomics. London, England: Taylor &

Francis.

Regan, M.A., J.D. Lee and K. Young. (2008). Driver Distraction: Theory, Effects, and Mitigation.

Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Regan, M.A., J.D. Lee and T.W. Victor. (2013). Driver Distraction and Inattention. Ashgate.

Rupp, G. (2010). Performance Metrics for Assessing Driver Distraction. Warrendale, PA: Society of

Automotive Engineers.

Smiley, A. (2015). Human Factors in Traffic Safety (3rd ed.). Tucson, AZ: Lawyers and Judges.

Society of Automotive Engineers. (2015). Operational Definitions of Driving Performance Measures

and Statistics (SAE Recommended Practice J2944), Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive

Engineers.

Walker, G.H. and N.A. Stanton. (2017). Human Factors in Automotive Engineering and Technology.

Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Walker, G.H., N.A. Stanton and P.M. Salmon. (2015). Human Factors in Automotive Engineering and

Technology. Ashgate.

Paul Green

University of Michigan

This book comes about as a result of the translation of a part of the Automotive Human

Factors of Automotive Engineering Handbook published by the Society of Automotive

Engineers of Japan (JSAE) in March 2016 in Japanese. It is financially supported by

the Automotive Human Factors Research Center (AHFRC) of the National Institute

of Advanced Science and Technology (AIST) of Japan. The selecting, compiling and

editing works have been accomplished by the editor who is a prime senior researcher

of AHFRC. The original articles were written by 37 Japanese authors who are experts

on automotive human factors in research institutes, universities and industries.

Human-centered design is a key issue in automotive technology nowadays.

Improvement in technology enables us to design driver assistance systems and in￾vehicle infotainment systems, cabin interiors and drive ability with greater flexibility

to meet human needs, functionalities and activities (human-centered design). In order

to achieve it, a wide range of knowledge about humans is required in the design and

development process. Knowledge about humans includes human sensory and motor

functions, cognitive functions, physiology and homeostatic functions, mental state,

behavioral characteristics and so on. However, it is not easy for automotive engineers

to learn and master all related disciplines and understand how to apply them by only

reading relevant textbooks. Therefore, there is a need to have a complete book that

compiles appropriate topics.

The Handbook of Automotive Human Factors aims to provide basic knowledge

about measurement and modeling of human functions and research and practices

related to automotive human factors. This book offers valuable lessons for researchers,

designers and developers for further research and development of human-centered

design of future automotive technologies. Some of the contents of the book are well

established and some are state-of-the-art. This book covers the following human

factors issues: driver state, sensory comfort (Kansei), interactions with systems and

driver behavior. It does not cover seating/packaging, displays/controls, visibility and

cabin climate because there have already been several books regarding these topics.

Chapter 1 reviews the history of automotive ergonomics and human factors and

indicates future issues. Chapter 2 describes the role of ergonomics and human factors in

the automobile design process and gives methodologies to understand the driver using

questionnaires, measurements using driving simulators and equipped vehicles and

sociological approaches. Chapter 3 presents experiences of sound design for vehicles,

ride quality and illumination for cabin comfort. Chapter 4 discusses driver state such

Preface

vi Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

as fatigue, workload, arousal level and enjoyment of driving, and their measurement

methods. Chapter 5 describes HMI design and evaluation of in-vehicle systems and

ADAS/automated driving systems. Chapter 6 explains characteristics and modeling

of drivers’ behavior that will be key issues in the future for designing human-centered

ADAS and other systems to support/assist drivers and extend drivers’ ability.

Motoyuki Akamatsu, Editor

January 2019

Contents

Foreword iii

Preface v

1. Overview of Automotive Ergonomics and Human Factors 1

1.1 Ergonomics and Human Factors for Making Products and Systems 1

Compatible with Humans

1.2 Beginning of Human-compatible Automobile Design 1

1.3 Vehicle Cabin Design 3

1.4 Instruments and Displays 4

1.4.1 Instrument Arrangement 4

1.4.2 Meters and Displays 5

1.4.3 Controls 6

1.5 Riding Comfort and Fatigue 7

1.5.1 Fatigue 7

1.5.2 Vibration 8

1.5.3 Arousal Level 9

1.6 Vehicle Interior Environment 9

1.7 Driving Tasks and Non-driving Tasks 10

1.7.1 In-vehicle Systems 10

1.7.2 Non-driving Activities like Using Mobile Phones 11

1.7.3 Visual Distraction 11

1.7.4 Mental Workload and Cognitive Distraction 12

1.8 Driver Model and Driving Behavior Measurement 13

1.8.1 Driver Model 13

1.8.2 Driving Behavior Measurement 13

1.8.2.1 Site-based Measurement 13

1.8.2.2 Driving Simulators 14

1.8.2.3 Equipped Vehicles and Naturalistic Driving Study 15

1.9 Driving-assistance Systems/Automated Driving Systems 15

1.9.1 ACC/Lane-keeping Systems 15

1.9.2 Automated Driving Systems 16

1.10 Elderly Drivers 17

1.11 Positive Aspects of Automobile Driving 18

1.11.1 Enjoyment and Growth 18

1.11.2 Stress Relief 20

viii Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

1.12 Future of Automobile Ergonomics: Viewpoint of Service 21

Engineering for Providing Value to Users

References 22

2. Ergonomic and Human Factors in Automobile Design and 32

Development Process

2.1 Ergonomists’ Roles and Responsibilities in Automobile Design 32

and Development

2.1.1 Ergonomics for Automobiles 32

2.1.2 Development Process 33

2.1.3 Identifying Out User Requirements 33

2.1.4 Ergonomics in Design Stage 34

2.1.5 Ergonomics in Assessment Stage 35

2.1.6 Feedback from Users 35

2.1.7 Designing User’s Manual 36

2.2 Surveys for Understanding Users in Design Stage 37

2.2.1 Viewpoints for Considering Target Users 37

2.2.2 Observation-based Approach 38

2.2.2.1 Knowing User Requirements 38

2.2.2.2 Behavior Observation 38

2.2.2.3 Ethnographical Methods 38

2.2.2.4 Task Analysis 40

2.2.3 Questionnaire and Interview Approach 41

2.2.3.1 Objectives of Questionnaires and Interviews 41

2.2.3.2 Selecting Survey Methods 41

2.2.3.3 Designing Paper Questionnaires and Interviews 42

2.2.3.4 Depth Interview Method 43

2.2.3.5 Group Interview 44

2.3 Driving Behavior Measurement 44

2.3.1 Driving Behavior Measurement Using Driving Simulators 44

2.3.1.1 Objectives of Using Driving Simulators 44

2.3.1.2 Basic Configuration of Driving Simulators 45

2.3.1.3 Classification of Driving Simulators 46

2.3.1.4 Driving Simulator Sickness 48

2.3.1.5 Other Tips for Use in Driving Simulators 49

2.3.2 Driving Behavior Measurement Using Instrumented Vehicles 50

2.3.2.1 Instrumented Vehicle 50

2.3.2.2 Measurement Environment 52

2.3.2.2.1 Measurement on a Test Track 52

2.3.2.2.2 Measurement on Real Roads 52

2.3.2.3 FOT and NDS 53

2.3.3 Driving Behavior Analysis Using Drive Recorders 53

2.3.3.1 Drive Recorder Specifications 53

2.3.3.2 Recording Driving Behavior 54

2.3.3.2.1 Face Direction 54

2.3.3.2.2 Recording Traffic Conditions 56

2.3.3.3 Data Recording Methods 56

2.3.3.3.1 Event Trigger Methods 56

2.3.3.3.2 Continuous Recording Methods 56

2.3.3.4 Examples of Drive Recorder Data Analysis 56

2.3.3.4.1 Time Series Analysis Using Variation 56

Tree Analysis

2.3.3.4.2 Analyzing a Series of Background Factors 58

References 59

3. Comfort and Quality 62

3.1 Occupant Comfort During Vehicle Run 62

3.1.1 Vibration and Comfort 62

3.1.1.1 Basic Vibration Measurement and Evaluation Methods 63

3.1.1.2 Riding Comfort Evaluation by Phenomenon 64

3.1.1.3 Method for Estimating the Vibration of the Seat 64

when an Occupant is Sitting

3.1.2 Comfort of the Seat 65

3.1.2.1 Seat Structure and Vibration Absorption Properties 66

3.1.2.1.1 Transmission of Vibration through the Seat 66

3.1.2.1.2 Issues on the Measurement of the 66

Vibration of the Seat

3.1.2.1.3 Seat Structure and Specific Characteristics 66

of Vibration

3.1.2.1.4 Vibration Characteristics of the Parts of Seat 67

3.1.2.1.5 Changes in the Characteristics of Vibrations 68

on People

3.1.2.2 Body Movements Caused by Acceleration 68

3.1.2.3 Support Performance of the Seat 69

3.1.2.3.1 Lateral Movements 69

3.1.2.3.2 Movements of the Head 70

3.1.2.3.3 Support by the Seat during Driving 70

3.1.3 Vibration and Driving Performance 70

3.2 Acoustic Comfort 75

3.2.1 Design of the Engine Sound 75

3.2.1.1 Acoustic Characteristics that Influence Sound Design 75

3.2.1.2 Order Composition of Sounds 75

3.2.1.2.1 Orders and Generation Mechanism 75

(1) Engine sound 75

(2) Suction sound 76

(3) Exhaust sound 77

3.2.1.2.2 Relationship of the Order Composition 77

and the Impression of the Sound

3.2.1.3 Control of the Sound 77

3.2.1.3.1 Method that Uses Components 78

of the Vehicle

3.2.1.3.2 Method that Uses Devices for Creating 78

Sounds

Contents ix

x Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

3.2.1.4 Sound Evaluation Methods 79

3.2.2 Sound of the Door Closing 79

3.2.2.1 Need for Research on Door Sounds 79

3.2.2.2 Mechanism of Door Closing Sounds 80

3.2.2.3 Conditions for Good Door Closing Sound 81

3.2.2.3.1 Arranging the Distribution of Frequency 81

3.2.2.3.2 Adding Reverberation Effects: It is 81

Effective to give Two Sounds with the

Same Frequency Components

3.2.2.4 How to Realize It 82

3.2.2.4.1 Method of Producing Sounds of Low 82

Frequency

3.2.2.4.2 How to Produce the Two Successive Sounds 82

3.2.2.5 Other Considerations 83

3.3 Cabin Air Quality 83

3.3.1 Smells in the Interior of the Vehicle 83

3.3.1.1 Sensory Evaluation 83

3.3.1.2 Instrumental Analysis 84

3.3.1.3 Odor Sensors 85

3.3.1.4 Odor Control 85

3.3.2 Effects of Fragrance 86

3.3.2.1 Perception Mechanism of Smells 86

3.3.2.2 Emotional and Physiological Effects of Fragrances 87

3.3.2.3 Future of Vehicles and Smells 88

3.4 Visual Environment of Vehicle Interior 88

3.4.1 Function and Design of Vehicle Interior Lighting 88

3.4.1.1 Types of Lighting 88

3.4.1.2 Requirements for Functional Lighting Design 89

and a Study Example

3.4.1.3 Map and Reading Lamps 90

3.4.1.4 Vanity Lamps 90

3.4.2 Comfort Provided by Vehicle Interior Lighting 91

3.4.2.1 Effect of Shape and Brightness of Light Source 91

on People’s Impression of Vehicle Comfort and

Spaciousness

3.4.2.2 Poor Visibility of Vehicle Interior from Outside 93

3.5 Interior Materials 94

3.5.1 Evaluation Criteria for Interior Material 94

3.5.2 Gripping Functions 94

3.5.2.1 Functions of Vehicle Operation System 94

3.5.2.2 Grips that Support Drivers/Passengers with 95

Physical Stability

3.5.2.3 Gripping Functions of Non-grip Parts 95

3.5.3 Effect of Sweat 95

3.5.4 Difference in Skin Structure Among Body Parts 96

3.5.5 Stickiness 96

3.5.6 Thermal Sensation 97

3.5.7 Breathable Seat Materials and Structures 98

3.5.8 Texture and Durability 98

References 98

4. Driver State 102

4.1 Driving Fatigue, Workload, and Stress 102

4.1.1 Stress and Strain 102

4.1.2 Driver Fatigue 103

4.1.3 Mental Workload and Tasks 104

4.1.4 Mental Workload Described in ISO 10075 105

4.1.5 Task Demand, Mental Resource and Fatigue 107

4.1.6 Difference Between the Concept of Mental Workload 107

and the Concept of Stress/Strain

4.1.7 Driver’s Stress 108

4.2 Enjoyment Generated by Automobiles 109

4.2.1 Utility of Automobile Use 109

4.2.2 Automobiles as a Tool for Stimulating Emotions 110

4.2.3 Flow Theory of Csikszentmihalyi 110

4.2.4 Flow and Increase of Skills 112

4.2.5 Flow and the Zone 113

4.2.6 Effects of Feelings of Enjoyment 114

4.2.7 Subjective Well-being and Automobiles 114

4.3 Arousal Level 115

4.3.1 Arousal Level and Sleepiness 115

4.3.2 Sleepiness Measurement Methods 117

4.3.2.1 Sleep Propensity 117

4.3.2.2 Vigilance 118

4.3.2.3 Subjective Sleepiness 120

4.3.3 Arousal Level Measurement 121

4.3.3.1 Driving Behavior 121

4.3.3.2 EEG 121

4.3.3.3 Rating Based on Facial Expressions 121

4.3.3.4 Pupil Diameter 122

4.3.3.5 Eye Movement 122

4.3.3.5.1 Saccade 122

4.3.3.5.2 Slow Eye Movement 123

4.3.3.5.3 Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) 123

4.3.3.6 Eyelid Activity 123

4.3.3.6.1 PERCLOS 123

4.3.3.6.2 Integrated Indices of Eye-related Measures 124

4.3.3.7 Heart Rate 126

4.3.3.8 Summary 126

4.3.4 Arousal-enhancing Technology 126

4.3.4.1 Sleepiness and Arousal Level 126

4.3.4.2 Counter Measures against Sleepiness, Napping 128

Contents xi

xii Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

4.3.4.3 Counter Measure against Sleepiness, Other 129

than Napping

4.3.4.4 Summary 130

4.4 Techniques for Measuring/Analyzing Physical Conditions 130

4.4.1 Significance of Introducing Biosignal Measurement 130

4.4.1.1 Purpose of Biosignal Measurement 130

4.4.1.2 Activities of an Organism and Biological Systems 131

4.4.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biological 131

Measurement

4.4.1.4 Potential of Biosignal Measurement 132

4.4.2 Indices of Central Nervous System Activity 132

4.4.2.1 Electroencephalogram (EEG) 133

4.4.2.2 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 135

4.4.2.3 Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) 135

4.4.2.4 Critical Flicker Fusion Frequency (CFF) 139

4.4.3 Indices Relating to the Visual System 139

4.4.3.1 Eye Movement 140

4.4.3.2 Visual Field 142

4.4.3.3 Eye Blink 143

4.4.3.4 Pupil 143

4.4.4 Indices of Autonomic Nervous System Activity 144

4.4.4.1 Heart Rate 144

4.4.4.2 Heart Rate Variability (HRV) Indices 145

4.4.4.3 Blood Pressure and Pulse Waves 146

4.4.4.4 Respiration 146

4.4.4.5 Electrodermal Activity 147

4.4.4.6 Skin Temperature 148

4.4.5 Facial Expression 148

4.4.5.1 Anatomy of Mimetic Muscles 148

4.4.5.2 Relationship Between Facial Expression and Emotion 149

4.4.5.3 Techniques for Estimating Emotions Based on 151

Facial Images

4.4.5.4 Relationship Between Facial Expression and 152

Driver States

4.4.5.5 Application of Facial Expressions to Automobile 152

and Future Challenges

4.4.6 Biochemical Reactions 152

References 155

5. Driver and System Interaction 162

5.1 Mental Workload while Using In-vehicle System 162

5.1.1 Workload Measurement Using Questionnaires 162

5.1.1.1 Cooper-Harper Rating Scale 162

5.1.1.2 NASA-TLX 162

5.1.1.3 SWAT 164

5.1.1.4 Workload Profile Method (WP) 166

5.1.1.5 Rating Scale Mental Effort (RSME) 167

5.1.2 Mental Workload Assessment Using the Subsidiary 168

Task Method

5.1.2.1 Two Types of Subsidiary Tasks 169

5.1.2.2 Psychological Concepts Related to the Subsidiary 169

Task Method

5.1.2.3 Example of Application of Subsidiary Task Method 171

5.1.3 Workload Measurement Based on Driving Performance 172

5.1.3.1 Overview 172

5.1.3.2 Steering Entropy (SE) Method 173

5.1.3.3 Real-time Steering Entropy (RSE) Method 175

5.1.3.4 Summary 178

5.2 HMI of In-car Information Systems 178

5.2.1 Interaction with a System 178

5.2.1.1 Design of Interaction 179

5.2.1.2 Tactile Feedback 179

5.2.1.3 Audio Interface 179

5.2.1.4 Integrated Controller 180

5.2.1.5 Internet Connection of In-car Devices 180

5.2.2 Route Navigation and Map Display 181

5.2.2.1 Volume of Graphic Information 181

5.2.2.2 Mental Map 181

5.2.2.3 Expression of Maps 183

5.2.2.4 Displaying Roads 184

5.2.2.5 Displaying Background 184

5.2.2.6 Presenting Text 185

5.2.2.7 Presenting Landmarks 186

5.2.2.8 Displaying Remaining Distance/Estimated 186

Required Time

5.2.2.9 Displaying Routes 187

5.2.2.9.1 Turn by Turn Display 187

5.2.2.9.2 Route Display 187

5.2.2.9.3 Traffic Lane Display 188

5.2.2.9.4 Crossing Macrograph 188

5.2.2.9.5 Highway Map 188

5.2.2.9.6 Manoeuver List 188

5.2.2.9.7 Guide Information to Support Safe Driving 190

5.2.2.10 Display of Traffic Information 190

5.2.3 Design of Menus 191

5.2.3.1 Menu-based Interaction 192

5.2.3.1.1 Fundamental Principles 192

5.2.3.1.2 Presentation and Selection of Menu Items 193

5.2.3.1.3 Strengths and Weaknesses of Menu-based 193

Interaction

5.2.3.2 Design Guidelines 193

5.2.3.3 Evaluation Methods for Menu Designs 194

5.3 Assessment of Driver Distraction 194

5.3.1 Definition of Distraction 194

5.3.1.1 Characteristics of Attention and Related Definitions 195

Contents xiii

xiv Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

5.3.1.2 Distraction 196

5.3.1.2.1 Suggested Definitions 196

5.3.1.2.2 Relation to Inattention 196

5.3.1.2.3 Relation to Arousal Level and Workload 196

5.3.1.3 Conclusion 197

5.3.2 Assumptions for Distraction Assessment 197

5.3.2.1 Information Processing and Distraction 197

5.3.2.2 Ideas and Types of Assessment Methods 198

5.3.2.2.1 Requirements for Assessment Methods 198

5.3.2.2.2 Types of Assessment Methods 199

(1) Primary task measurement and 199

secondary (subsidiary) task

measurement

(2) Assumptions and notes for the 199

secondary task measurement

(3) Secondary task measurement and 199

dual task measurement

(4) Primary task and subsidiary/ 200

additional task

5.3.2.2.3 Conclusion 200

5.3.3 Visual-Manual Distraction Assessment 201

5.3.3.1 Direct Assessment 201

5.3.3.1.1 Visual Behavior 201

5.3.3.1.2 Driving Performance 203

5.3.3.2 Occlusion Method 205

5.3.4 Cognitive Distraction Assessment 206

5.3.4.1 Lane Change Test (LCT Method) 206

5.3.4.2 Detection Response Task (DRT Method) 208

5.3.4.3 Physiological Index 209

5.3.5 Reference Tasks in Distraction Assessment 210

5.3.5.1 Item Recognition Task 210

5.3.5.2 N-back Task 211

5.3.5.3 Calibration Task 212

5.3.5.4 Conclusion 213

5.3.6 Use of Cellular Phone while Driving 213

5.4 Interaction with Advanced Driver Assistance Systems 215

5.4.1 Presentation and Management of Information 215

5.4.1.1 Design of Warning Signal 215

5.4.1.1.1 Warning 215

5.4.1.1.2 Warning Compliance 215

5.4.1.1.3 Expected Driver’s Response 216

5.4.1.1.4 Warning Level and Warning Design 217

(1) Criticality and urgency 217

(2) Warning level 217

5.4.1.1.5 Basic Requirements for Warning Designs 218

(1) Visual presentation of warnings 218

(2) Impression given by the design of 219

warning signals