Fundamentals of Ecotoxicology: The Science of Pollution

The Science of Pollution

FUNDAMENTALS OF ECOTOXICOLOGY

Newman

FOURTH

EDITION

FUNDAMENTALS

OF ECOTOXICOLOGY

The Science of Pollution

Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology

FOURTH EDITION

ISBN: 978-1-4665-8229-3

9 781466 582293

90000

K18926

“This is the ideal. A comprehensive and up-to-date book on how chemicals affect

organisms and ecosystems. By including 30 vignettes, the author has succeeded

in bringing independent state-of-the-science perspectives from a variety of

experts. … It is a ‘must have’ text on the shelves of students and practitioners of

ecotoxicology.”

—Don Mackay, Trent University, Ontario, Canada

An integrated analysis exploring current and relevant concepts, Fundamentals of

Ecotoxicology: The Science of Pollution, Fourth Edition extends the dialogue

further from the previous editions and beyond conventional ecosystems. It explores

landscape, regional, and biospheric topics, communicating core concepts with

subjects ranging from molecular to global issues. It addresses the increasing growth

and complexity of ecotoxicological problems, contains additional vignettes, and

employs input from a variety of experts in the field.

Divided into 14 chapters, the book begins with an overall history of the field.

It details the essential features of the key contaminants of concern today,

including their sources. It examines bioaccumulation, the effects of contaminants

at increasing levels of ecological organization, and the regulatory aspects of

the field addressing the technical issues of risk assessment. The author includes

appendices illustrating important environmental laws and regulations and

compiles key terms not already identified by section headings in the glossary. He

also provides suggested readings at the end of each chapter and presents study

questions at the end of the book.

Fundamentals of Ecotoxicology: The Science of Pollution, Fourth Edition

contains a broad overview of ecotoxicology, and provides a basic understanding

of the field. Designed as a textbook for use in introductory graduate or upper￾level undergraduate courses in ecotoxicology, applied ecology, environmental

pollution, and environmental science, it can also be used as a general reference

for practicing environmental toxicologists.

K18926_COVER_final.indd 1 9/24/14 1:36 PM

FUNDAMENTALS OF

ECOTOXICOLOGY

The Science of Pollution

FOURTH EDITION

Michael C. Newman

FUNDAMENTALS OF

ECOTOXICOLOGY

The Science of Pollution

FOURTH EDITION

CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Group

6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300

Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Version Date: 20140320

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To Peg, Ben, and Ian

I pretend not to teach, but to inquire …

Locke (1690)

vii

Contents

List of Vignettes.............................................................................................................................. xiii

Preface..............................................................................................................................................xv

Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................................xix

Author .............................................................................................................................................xxi

Guest Authors .............................................................................................................................. xxiii

Chapter 1

Introduction........................................................................................................................................1

1.1 Historic Need for Ecotoxicology ............................................................................................1

1.2 Current Need for Ecotoxicology Expertise.............................................................................6

1.3 Ecotoxicology........................................................................................................................22

1.4 Ecotoxicology: A Synthetic Science .....................................................................................23

1.4.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................23

1.4.2 Science, Technology, and Practice...........................................................................25

1.4.2.1 Scientific Goal..........................................................................................26

1.4.2.2 Technological Goal ..................................................................................28

1.4.2.3 Practical Goal...........................................................................................29

1.5 Summary...............................................................................................................................30

Suggested Readings......................................................................................................................... 31

Chapter 2

Major Classes of Contaminants....................................................................................................... 33

2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 33

2.2 Major Classes of Contaminants............................................................................................34

2.2.1 Inorganic Contaminants...........................................................................................34

2.2.1.1 Metals and Metalloids.............................................................................. 35

2.2.1.2 Organometallic Compounds ....................................................................39

2.2.1.3 Inorganic Gases........................................................................................40

2.2.1.4 Anionic Contaminants Including Nutrients.............................................40

2.2.2 Organic Contaminants............................................................................................. 43

2.2.2.1 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons and Chlorofluorocarbons .............................. 43

2.2.2.2 Organochlorine Alkenes ..........................................................................44

2.2.2.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons.......................................................... 45

2.2.2.4 Polyhalogenated Benzenes, Phenols, and Biphenyls................................46

2.2.2.5 Polychlorinated Naphthalenes.................................................................. 47

2.2.2.6 Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins and Dibenzofurans...............................48

2.2.2.7 Pesticides..................................................................................................48

2.2.2.8 Herbicides.................................................................................................70

2.2.2.9 Oxygen-Demanding Compounds............................................................. 71

2.2.2.10 Other Important Compounds................................................................... 71

2.2.2.11 Additional Emerging Organic Contaminants of Concern .......................79

2.2.3 Radiations ................................................................................................................83

2.2.3.1 Expressing Radioactivity..........................................................................85

2.2.3.2 Radionuclides...........................................................................................86

2.2.3.3 Ultraviolet Radiation ................................................................................88

2.2.3.4 Infrared Radiation....................................................................................89

viii Contents

2.2.4 Genetic Contaminants .............................................................................................89

2.2.5 Nanomaterials..........................................................................................................90

2.2.6 Thermal Pollution ....................................................................................................92

2.3 Summary...............................................................................................................................94

2.4 Background Chemistry Concepts and Definitions................................................................94

Suggested Readings.........................................................................................................................98

Chapter 3

Uptake, Biotransformation, Detoxification, Elimination, and Accumulation .................................99

3.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................99

3.2 Uptake ................................................................................................................................. 101

3.2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 101

3.2.2 Reaction Order....................................................................................................... 104

3.3 Biotransformation and Detoxification................................................................................. 105

3.3.1 General................................................................................................................... 105

3.3.2 Metals and Metalloids............................................................................................ 105

3.3.3 Organic Compounds.............................................................................................. 108

3.4 Elimination.......................................................................................................................... 109

3.4.1 Elimination Mechanisms....................................................................................... 109

3.4.2 Modeling Elimination............................................................................................ 112

3.5 Accumulation ...................................................................................................................... 117

3.6 Summary.............................................................................................................................126

Suggested Readings.......................................................................................................................126

Chapter 4

Factors Influencing Bioaccumulation ............................................................................................ 129

4.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 129

4.1.1 General................................................................................................................... 129

4.1.2 Bioavailability........................................................................................................ 130

4.2 Chemical Qualities Influencing Bioavailability.................................................................. 133

4.2.1 Inorganic Contaminants......................................................................................... 133

4.2.1.1 Bioavailability from Water..................................................................... 133

4.2.2 Bioavailability from Solid Phases.......................................................................... 138

4.2.3 Organic Contaminants........................................................................................... 146

4.2.3.1 Bioavailability from Water..................................................................... 146

4.2.3.2 Bioavailability from Solid Phases.......................................................... 149

4.3 Biological Qualities Influencing Bioaccumulation ............................................................. 150

4.3.1 Temperature-Influenced Processes........................................................................ 150

4.3.2 Allometry............................................................................................................... 151

4.3.3 Other Factors.......................................................................................................... 154

4.4 Summary............................................................................................................................. 155

Suggested Readings....................................................................................................................... 155

Chapter 5

Bioaccumulation from Food and Trophic Transfer........................................................................ 157

5.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 157

5.2 Quantifying Bioaccumulation from Food........................................................................... 165

5.2.1 Assimilation from Food......................................................................................... 165

Contents ix

5.2.2 Trophic Transfer..................................................................................................... 166

5.2.2.1 Defining Trophic Position ...................................................................... 166

5.2.2.2 Estimating Trophic Transfer................................................................... 169

5.3 Inorganic Contaminants...................................................................................................... 172

5.3.1 Metals and Metalloids............................................................................................ 172

5.3.2 Radionuclides......................................................................................................... 176

5.4 Organic Compounds ........................................................................................................... 177

5.5 Summary............................................................................................................................. 179

Suggested Readings....................................................................................................................... 180

Chapter 6

Molecular Effects and Biomarkers................................................................................................ 181

6.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 181

6.2 Organic Compound Detoxification ..................................................................................... 182

6.2.1 Phase I Transformations ........................................................................................ 183

6.2.2 Phase II Transformations....................................................................................... 192

6.3 Metallothioneins ................................................................................................................. 193

6.4 Stress Proteins.....................................................................................................................200

6.5 Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Response ....................................................................... 201

6.6 DNA Modification...............................................................................................................204

6.7 Enzyme Dysfunction and Substrate Pool Shifts.................................................................206

6.8 Summary.............................................................................................................................208

Suggested Readings.......................................................................................................................208

Chapter 7

Cells, Tissues, and Organs.............................................................................................................209

7.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................209

7.2 General Cytotoxicity and Histopathology .......................................................................... 210

7.2.1 Necrosis and Apoptosis.......................................................................................... 211

7.2.2 Inflammation.......................................................................................................... 214

7.2.3 Other General Effects............................................................................................ 215

7.3 Gene and Chromosome Damage ........................................................................................ 217

7.4 Cancer .................................................................................................................................222

7.5 Gills as an Example ............................................................................................................225

7.6 Liver as an Example............................................................................................................226

7.7 Summary............................................................................................................................. 233

Suggested Readings.......................................................................................................................234

Chapter 8

Sublethal Effects to Individuals..................................................................................................... 235

8.1 General................................................................................................................................ 235

8.2 Selyean Stress......................................................................................................................236

8.3 Growth ................................................................................................................................ 237

8.4 Development........................................................................................................................243

8.4.1 Developmental Toxicity and Teratology ................................................................243

8.4.2 Sexual Characteristics............................................................................................246

8.4.3 Developmental Stability......................................................................................... 252

8.5 Reproduction.......................................................................................................................259

x Contents

8.6 Physiology ...........................................................................................................................260

8.7 Immunology........................................................................................................................263

8.8 Behavior ..............................................................................................................................263

8.9 Detecting Sublethal Effects................................................................................................. 267

8.9.1 Conventional Approach ......................................................................................... 267

8.9.2 Fundamental Issue to Resolve ............................................................................... 271

8.10 Summary............................................................................................................................. 273

Suggested Readings....................................................................................................................... 274

Chapter 9

Acute and Chronic Lethal Effects to Individuals.......................................................................... 275

9.1 General................................................................................................................................ 275

9.1.1 Overview................................................................................................................ 275

9.1.2 Acute, Chronic, and Life Stage Lethality .............................................................. 275

9.1.3 Test Types .............................................................................................................. 276

9.2 Dose–Response ................................................................................................................... 279

9.2.1 Basis for Dose–Response Models.......................................................................... 279

9.2.2 Fitting Data to Dose–Response Models ................................................................ 281

9.2.3 Incipiency...............................................................................................................286

9.2.4 Mixture Models .....................................................................................................286

9.3 Survival Time......................................................................................................................292

9.3.1 Basis for Time–Response Models .........................................................................292

9.3.2 Fitting Survival Time Data ....................................................................................293

9.3.3 Incipiency...............................................................................................................296

9.3.4 Mixture Models .....................................................................................................296

9.4 Factors Influencing Lethality..............................................................................................297

9.4.1 Biotic Qualities......................................................................................................297

9.4.2 Abiotic Qualities....................................................................................................298

9.5 Summary.............................................................................................................................304

Suggested Readings.......................................................................................................................304

Chapter 10

Effects on Populations ...................................................................................................................305

10.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................305

10.2 Epidemiology ......................................................................................................................306

10.3 Population Dynamics and Demography ............................................................................. 310

10.3.1 Overview................................................................................................................ 310

10.3.2 General Population Response ................................................................................ 311

10.3.3 Demographic Change ............................................................................................ 313

10.3.4 Energy Allocation by Individuals in Populations.................................................. 318

10.4 Metapopulations..................................................................................................................324

10.5 Population Genetics ............................................................................................................ 333

10.5.1 Change in Genetic Qualities.................................................................................. 336

10.5.2 Acquisition of Tolerance ........................................................................................ 337

10.5.3 Measuring and Interpreting Genetic Change ........................................................340

10.5 Summary............................................................................................................................. 342

Suggested Readings....................................................................................................................... 342

Contents xi

Chapter 11

Effects to Communities and Ecosystems....................................................................................... 343

11.1 Overview............................................................................................................................. 343

11.1.1 Definitions and Qualifications............................................................................... 343

11.1.2 Context...................................................................................................................344

11.1.3 General Assessment of Effect................................................................................346

11.2 Interactions Involving Two or a Few Species .....................................................................348

11.2.1 Predation and Grazing ...........................................................................................348

11.2.2 Competition............................................................................................................ 351

11.3 Community Qualities.......................................................................................................... 352

11.3.1 General................................................................................................................... 352

11.3.2 Structure................................................................................................................. 358

11.3.2.1 Community Indices................................................................................ 358

11.3.2.2 Approaches to Measuring Community Structure ..................................366

11.3.3 Function ................................................................................................................. 370

11.4 Ecosystem Qualities............................................................................................................ 371

11.5 Summary............................................................................................................................. 374

Suggested Readings....................................................................................................................... 375

Chapter 12

Landscape to Global Effects.......................................................................................................... 377

12.1 General................................................................................................................................ 377

12.2 Landscapes and Regions.....................................................................................................384

12.3 Continents and Hemispheres...............................................................................................386

12.4 Biosphere............................................................................................................................. 393

12.4.1 General................................................................................................................... 393

12.4.2 Global Movement of Persistent Organic Pollutants...............................................394

12.4.3 Global Warming..................................................................................................... 395

12.5 Summary.............................................................................................................................396

Suggested Readings.......................................................................................................................396

Chapter 13

Risk Assessment of Contaminants ................................................................................................397

13.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................397

13.1.1 Real and Perceived Risk ........................................................................................397

13.1.2 Logic of Risk Assessment......................................................................................397

13.1.3 Expressions of Risk................................................................................................ 401

13.1.4 Risk Assessment ....................................................................................................402

13.2 Human Risk Assessment.....................................................................................................403

13.2.1 General...................................................................................................................403

13.2.2 Hazard Identification (Data Collection and Data Evaluation)...............................404

13.2.3 Exposure Assessment.............................................................................................405

13.2.4 Dose–Response Assessment..................................................................................405

13.2.5 Risk Characterization ............................................................................................407

13.2.6 Summary................................................................................................................408

xii Contents

13.3 Ecological Risk Assessment ...............................................................................................409

13.3.1 General...................................................................................................................409

13.3.2 Problem Formulation ............................................................................................. 410

13.3.3 Analysis.................................................................................................................. 412

13.3.3.1 Exposure Characterization..................................................................... 413

13.3.3.2 Ecological Effects Characterization....................................................... 413

13.3.4 Risk Characterization ............................................................................................ 413

13.3.5 Summary................................................................................................................ 414

13.4 Radiation Risk Assessment................................................................................................. 414

13.4.1 Characteristics of Types of Radiations and Their Effects..................................... 414

13.4.2 Expressing Radiation Dose and Effect .................................................................. 414

13.4.3 Models of Radiation Effect.................................................................................... 417

13.5 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 423

Suggested Readings....................................................................................................................... 423

Chapter 14

Conclusions.................................................................................................................................... 425

14.1 Overview............................................................................................................................. 425

14.2 Practical Importance of Ecotoxicology ..............................................................................425

14.3 Scientific Importance of Ecotoxicology..............................................................................426

Appendix 1: International System (SI) of Units Prefixes............................................................... 429

Appendix 2: Miscellaneous Conversion Factors ........................................................................... 431

Appendix 3: Summary of U.S. Laws and Regulations.................................................................. 433

Appendix 4: Summary of European Union Laws and Regulations............................................... 441

Mark Crane and Albania Grosso

Appendix 5: Summary of Modern Environmental Laws and Regulations of China ....................447

Taiping Wang

Appendix 6: Regulation and Management of Chemicals in Australia: A 2013 Update................ 451

Michael StJ. Warne

Appendix 7: Summary of Indian Environmental Laws and Regulations...................................... 457

S. Bijoy Nandan

Appendix 8: Regulation and Management of Hazardous Chemical Substances in

South Africa..............................................................................................................463

Theunis Meyer and Claudine Roos

Appendix 9: Derivation of Units for Simple Bioaccumulation Models......................................... 471

Appendix 10: Equations for the Estimation of Exposure .............................................................. 473

Study Questions............................................................................................................................. 475

Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... 501

References......................................................................................................................................549

xiii

List of Vignettes

Vignette 1.1 The Emergence and Future of Ecotoxicology.......................................................... 17

John Cairns, Jr.

Vignette 2.1 Endosulfan and Cashew Production in Southern India .......................................... 55

S. Bijoy Nandan

Vignette 2.2 Ecotoxicology and Pesticides in Central America................................................... 62

Luisa E. Castillo, Clemens Ruepert, Elba de la Cruz, and Virya Bravo Durán

Vignette 2.3 Perfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment: History of an

Environmental Issue.............................................................................................................. 74

John P. Giesy and Paul D. Jones

Vignette 3.1 Fugacity and Bioaccumulation ............................................................................... 119

Jon A. Arnot and Donald Mackay

Vignette 4.1 Metal Speciation: A Continuum............................................................................. 134

Peter G. C.Campbell and Landis Hare

Vignette 4.2 Bioavailability of Metals to Aquatic Biota............................................................. 140

Philip S. Rainbow and Samuel N. Luoma

Vignette 5.1 Birds as Monitors of Mercury Pollution................................................................. 160

Robert W. Furness

Vignette 5.2 Models of Mercury Trophic Transfer Using Nitrogen Isotopes............................. 173

Kyle R. Tom and Michael C. Newman

Vignette 6.1 Cytochrome P-450 Monooxygenases and Their Regulation.................................. 186

Mark E. Hahn

Vignette 6.2 Metallothioneins .................................................................................................... 195

Guritno Roesijadi

Vignette 7.1 Chromosome Damage ............................................................................................ 219

Karen McBee

Vignette 7.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Liver Cancer in Fish...............................230

Wolfgang K. Vogelbein

Vignette 8.1 Dose Response: Comparing Hormesis with the Threshold and Linear

No-Threshold Models..........................................................................................................238

Edward J. Calabrese

Vignette 8.2 Use of Neogastropods as an Indicator of Tributyltin

Contamination along the South China Coast......................................................................248

Ma Shan Cheung, Helen Y. M. Leung, and Kenneth M. Y. Leung

Vignette 8.3 Developmental Instability and Fluctuating Asymmetry........................................ 253

Dmitry L. Lajus

Vignette 8.4 The Role of Behavior in Ecotoxicology.................................................................265

Mark Sandheinrich

Vignette 9.1 Photo-induced Toxicity of Polycyclic Aromatic

Hydrocarbons in Aquatic Systems......................................................................................299

James T. Oris

Vignette 10.1 Effects of Contaminant on Population Dynamics................................................ 319

Valery E. Forbes and Peter Calow

Vignette 10.2 Action at a Distance: The Impacts of Chemicals on the

Dynamics of Spatially Explicit Populations ....................................................................... 326

Wayne G. Landis

Vignette 10.3 Industrial Melanism: Genetic Adaptation to Pollution ........................................ 333

Bruce Grant