Air Pollution: Measurement, Modelling and Mitigation, Third Edition

Air Pollution

A one stop, comprehensive textbook, covering the three essential components of air pollu￾tion science. This third edition has been updated with the latest developments, especially the

inclusion of new information on the role of air pollutants in climate change. The authors give

greater coverage to the developing economies around the world where air pollution problems

are on the rise.

The third edition continues to cover a wide range of air quality issues, retaining a quantitat￾ive perspective. Topics covered include:

• gaseous and particulate air pollutants

• measurement techniques

• meteorology and dispersion modelling

• mobile sources

• indoor air

• effects on plants, materials, humans and animals.

Moving away from classical toxic air pollutants, there is a chapter on climate change and

another on the depletion of stratospheric ozone. A special feature of this new edition is the

inclusion of a fresh chapter on air pollution mitigation by vegetation, mainly its role in main￾taining a sustainable urban environment.

The book is recommended for upper- level undergraduate and postgraduate courses specialis￾ing in air pollution, both for environmental scientists and engineers. The new material included

in this edition extends its usefulness for practitioners in consultancies or local authorities.

Abhishek Tiwary is a Chartered Scientist and a Chartered Environmentalist involved in issues

related to urban air pollution management and sustainable development. He is based at the

University of Newcastle, UK.

Jeremy Colls is Professor Emeritus in Atmospheric Environment at the University of Nottingham,

UK. He authored the previous two editions of Air Pollution.

Air Pollution

Measurement, modelling and mitigation

Third edition

Abhishek Tiwary and Jeremy Colls

First edition published 1997 by E. & F.N. Spon

Second edition published 2002 by Spon Press

This edition published 2010

by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge

270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2010 Abhishek Tiwary and Jeremy Colls

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any

form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,

including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,

without permission in writing from the publishers.

This publication presents material of a broad scope and applicability. Despite stringent

efforts by all concerned in the publishing process, some typographical or editorial errors

may occur, and readers are encouraged to bring these to our attention where they

represent errors of substance. The publisher and author disclaim any liability, in whole

or in part, arising from information contained in this publication. The reader is urged to

consult with an appropriate licensed professional prior to taking any action or making any

interpretation that is within the realm of a licensed professional practice.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tiwary, Abhishek.

Air pollution: measurement, modelling, and mitigation / Abhishek Tiwary and Jeremy Colls.—3rd ed.

p. cm.

Rev. ed. of: Air pollution / Jeremy Colls. 2002.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Air—Pollution. I. Colls, Jeremy. II. Colls, Jeremy. Air pollution. III. Title.

TD883.A4713 2010

363.739’2—dc22 2009007820

ISBN10: 0-415-47933-9 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0- 415-47932-0 (pbk)

ISBN10: 0- 203-87196-0 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978-0- 415-47933-2 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978-0- 415-47932-5 (pbk)

ISBN13: 978-0- 203-87196-6 (ebk)

ISBN 0-203-87196-0 Master e-book ISBN

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.

To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s

collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.

To Our Family & Friends

Contents

Acronyms and abbreviations xi

Preface xix

1 Air pollutants: sources and control of gases 1

1.1 Units for expressing pollutant concentration 2

1.2 The basic atmosphere 5

1.3 The vertical structure of the atmosphere 8

1.4 Anthropogenic emissions 11

1.5 Primary emission summary 35

1.6 Adsorption and absorption of gases 37

1.7 Other air pollutants 38

1.8 Secondary gaseous pollutants 43

1.9 Emission inventories 51

2 Air pollutants: particulates 54

2.1 Particle terminology 54

2.2 Particle size distributions 55

2.3 Aerosol mechanics 63

2.4 Particle sources 78

2.5 Abatement of primary particle emissions 82

2.6 Secondary particles 86

2.7 Trends in particle emissions 88

3 Mobile sources 91

3.1 Motor vehicle emissions 93

3.2 Train emissions 129

3.3 Shipping emissions 130

3.4 Aircraft emissions 131

3.5 Different modes of transport 137

4 Measurement of gases and particles 139

4.1 Methods of describing pollutant concentration 139

4.2 Sampling requirements 140

viii Contents

4.3 Gas sampling 141

4.4 Gas concentration measurement 147

4.5 Quality control 157

4.6 Particle sampling 160

4.7 Particle measurement methods 162

4.8 Chemical composition of aerosol 175

4.9 Measurement of coarse particle deposition 178

4.10 Emission measurement from stationary sources 181

4.11 Measurement uncertainty 188

5 Concentrations and deposition 191

5.1 Gaseous pollutants 191

5.2 Patterns of occurrence 198

5.3 Particulate matter 205

5.4 Dry deposition of gases 207

5.5 Wet deposition 212

5.6 Total deposition and budgets 220

5.7 Analysis of an air pollution episode 221

6 Meteorology and modelling 225

6.1 Meteorological factors 225

6.2 Dispersion models 237

6.3 Gaussian dispersion theory 238

6.4 Dispersion theory in practice 249

6.5 Dispersion of vehicle emissions and exposure modelling 256

6.6 Receptor models 258

6.7 Box models 259

6.8 Statistical models 260

7 Analysis of an air-quality data set 261

7.1 The raw data set 261

7.2 Period averages 264

7.3 Roses 265

7.4 Diurnal variations 267

7.5 Short-term events 270

7.6 Frequency distributions 271

7.7 Further statistical analyses 274

8 Indoor air quality 275

8.1 Building ventilation 276

8.2 Combustion 281

8.3 Indoor organics sources 284

8.4 Bioaerosols 286

Contents ix

8.5 Sick building syndrome 290

8.6 Odour and ventilation 291

8.7 Clean rooms 291

9 Mitigation of air pollution: the role of vegetation 293

9.1 Forest canopy intervention 294

9.2 Particle deposition to vegetation 299

9.3 Filter strips 301

9.4 Practical concerns of vegetation intervention 307

10 Effects on plants, visual range and materials 317

10.1 Effects on plants 317

10.2 Visual range 344

10.3 Damage to materials 351

11 Responses of humans and other animals 355

11.1 Responses of people 355

11.2 Effects on other animals 382

12 Greenhouse gases and climate change 387

12.1 Our radiation environment 388

12.2 The role of gases 393

12.3 The role of aerosol 405

12.4 Gases and aerosol combined 410

12.5 Future scenarios 412

12.6 The main predictions 413

12.7 Feedbacks 420

12.8 Global responses 422

13 Ozone depletion and ultraviolet radiation 427

13.1 Ozone in the stratosphere 427

13.2 Destructive chemistry 433

13.3 The current situation 439

13.4 Ozone and ultraviolet 442

13.5 Clothing protection from UV 450

14 Standards and legislation 457

14.1 UK legislation 458

14.2 EU air-quality legislation 462

14.3 UNECE 464

14.4 World Health Organization (WHO) 466

14.5 EU industrial emission legislation 467

14.6 EU vehicle emissions 470

x Contents

14.7 US legislation 475

14.8 Legislation in the Asian region 483

14.9 Air pollution indices 486

Index 489

Acronyms and abbreviations

AA ambient air – usually refers to plants growing in the open for comparison

with those in chambers

AAS atomic absorption spectroscopy

ACE Aerosol Characterisation Experiment

ACH air changes per hour – an estimator of building ventilation rate

AES atomic emission spectroscopy

ACGIH American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists

AMIS air management information system

ANC acid neutralising capacity

AOT40 accumulation over threshold – the measure currently favoured by

UNECE for estimating ozone impact on plants

APHEA Air Pollution and Health: A European Approach

AQCD Air Quality Criteria Document (US)

AQI Air Quality Index

AQMA Air Quality Management Area (UK)

AQRV Air Quality Related Value (US)

AQS Air Quality Standards (US)

ARN Automated Rural Network

AR4 Assessment Report 4 – referred to the fourth assessment report of the

IPCC

AUN Automated Urban Network

BAF biological amplification factor – used to describe the overall response of

biological systems to ozone changes

BaP benzo[a]pyrene

BART Best Available Retrofit Technology

BATNEEC Best Available Techniques (or Technology) not Entailing Excessive

Cost

BC black carbon

BCC basal cell carcinoma

BFO bunker fuel oil

BPEO Best Practicable Environmental Option

BPM Best Practicable Means – the long-established UK philosophy for pollu￾tion control

BS British Standard

Btu British thermal unit – unit of energy used in power, steam generation,

heating and air conditioning industries

BTX benzene, toluene and xylene

xii Acronyms and abbreviations

BUN Basic Urban Network – urban sites in the UK national network of

24-hour air pollutant samplers

BVOC biogenic volatile organic carbon

CAA Clean Air Act (US)

CAAA Clean Air Act Amendments (US)

CAFE Clean Air for Europe

CAI Clean Air Initiative – mainly used in the context of air pollution

in Asia

CALINE California Line Source Model – one of the most widely used dispersion

models for vehicle emissions

CARB California Air Resources Board

CCN cloud condensation nuclei – the particles on which condensation initially

occurs to form cloud droplets

CE collection efficiency

CEC Commission of the European Communities

CEH Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, UK

CF charcoal-filtered – an OTC supplied with cleaned air

CFC chlorofluorocarbon – family of chemicals responsible for depleting ozone

in the stratosphere

CFD computational fluid dynamics

CHESS Community Health and Surveillance System (US)

CHP combined heat and power – used in the context of thermal energy

generation

CLRTAP Convention on the Long Range Transport of Air Pollutants

CNC condensation nucleus counter

COH coefficient of haze

COHb carboxyhaemoglobin – produced when blood haemoglobin absorbs CO

COMEAP Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants (UK)

COP Conference of Parties (for UNFCCC)

COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

CORINAIR CORe Inventory of AIR emissions – the EU programme to collect and

map emissions data for all significant sources of eight gaseous pollutants

CPB Canyon Plume Box Model for calculating dispersion in urban areas

CPC condensation particle counter

CPCB Central Pollution Control Board (India)

CPF clothing protection factor

CRT continuously regenerating trap

DALR dry adiabatic lapse rate – the rate of decrease of temperature with height

in the atmosphere applicable to a parcel of air that contains no liquid

water. Value 9.8 °C km–1

DALY disability adjusted life years

DDT dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane – one of the synthetic pesticides

DEFRA Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (UK)

DEP diesel exhaust particles

DERV diesel engine road vehicle – diesel fuel used for road vehicles

DI direct injection

DIAL differential absorption LIDAR

DMA differential mobility analyser

DME dimethyl ether

Acronyms and abbreviations xiii

DMS dimethyl sulphide – organic sulphur compound released from marine

phytoplankton that is eventually oxidised to sulphur dioxide and particu￾late sulphate in the atmosphere

DOAS differential optical absorption spectroscopy

DOC diesel oxidation catalyst

DoE Department of the Environment (UK)

DOM dissolved organic matter

DPF diesel particulate filter

DRAM direct-reading aerosol monitor

DTLR Department for Transport, Local Authorities and the Regions

(UK)

DU Dobson unit – for the column depth of ozone in the atmosphere

DVI Dust Veil Index

EA Environment Agency (UK)

EAA electrical aerosol analyser

EC European Community

ECD electron capture detector

ECE Economic Commission for Europe (same as UNECE)

EDAX energy dispersive analysis of X-rays

EDU ethylenediurea – a chemical that protects plants from ozone

EEA European Environment Agency

EEC European Economic Community

EER erythemally effective radiation – sun-burning potential of a given radia￾tion environment

EESC equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine

EF emission factor – e.g. g km–1

EGR exhaust gas recirculation

EIONET European Environmental Information and Observation Network

ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

ELPI electrostatic low pressure impactor

ELR environmental lapse rate – the vertical profile of temperature in the

atmosphere

ELV emission limit value

EMEP European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme

ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation

EPA Environmental Protection Act (UK)

EPA Environmental Protection Agency (USA)

EPAQS Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards (UK)

ERBS Earth Radiation Budget Satellite

ESP electrostatic precipitator

ETC/AQ European Topic Centre on Air Quality

ETS environmental tobacco smoke – the combination of MTS and STS that

makes up the atmospheric load

EU European Union

EUDC extra-urban drive cycle (EC)

EUROAIRNET European Air Quality Monitoring Network

FACE Free-Air Carbon Dioxide Enrichment – the system developed in the US

for elevating the CO2 concentration above field crops

FAR First Assessment Report (by IPCC on climate change)

xiv Acronyms and abbreviations

FEAT Fuel Efficiency Automobile Test – an optical gas sensor that scans across

the road width

FEV forced expiratory volume – a measure of lung response to air pollutants

FGD flue gas desulphurisation – a range of chemical process plant that

strips sulphur dioxide from flue gases before they are released to the

atmosphere

FID flame ionisation detector

FTIR Fourier transform infrared

FTP Federal Test Program (US)

GC gas chromatography

GCM General Circulation Model

GCTE Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems project

GHG greenhouse gas

GVW gross vehicle weight

GWP global warming potential

HAP hazardous air pollutants (US)

Hb haemoglobin

HCB hexachloro benzene – a pesticide

HCFC hydrochlorofluorocarbon – substitute for CFCs

HDV heavy duty vehicle – such as a truck

HEPA high efficiency particulate air

HFC hydrofluorocarbon – substitute for CFCs

HGV heavy goods vehicle

HMIP Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Pollution (UK)

HPLC high pressure liquid chromatography

HVAC heating, ventilating and air conditioning

IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICP inductively coupled plasma

IDI indirect injection

IGAC International Global Atmospheric Chemistry project

INDOEX The Indian Ocean Experiment – an international study conducted to

assess the anthropogenic aerosols released from the Asian region

IPC Integrated Pollution Control

IPCC Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change

IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control

IR infrared

ISO International Organization for Standardization

LA local authority (UK)

LAI Leaf Area Index

LAPC Local Air Pollution Control

LAQM Local Air Quality Management (UK)

LCA Life Cycle Assessment

LCPD Large Combustion Plant Directive (EC)

LDV light duty vehicle – such as a van

LEV Low Emission Vehicle program (US)

LGV light goods vehicle

LIDAR light detection and ranging

LNG liquefied natural gas