Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles: Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions

c

Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles

Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions

Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles

Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions

Asif Faiz

Christopher S. Weaver

Michael P.Walsh

With contributions by

Surhid P Gautam

Lit-Mian Chan

The World Bank

Washington, D.C.

© 1996 The International Bank

for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank

1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reserved

Manufactured in the United States of America

First printing November 1996

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this publication are those of the authors

and do not necessarily represent the views and policies of the World Bank or its Board of Executive

Directors or the countries they represent. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents

that are not readily available.

The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it

should be sent to the Office of the Publisher at the address shown in the copyright notice above. The

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Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, U.S.A.

The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of

Publications, which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of

subjects, authors, and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from

Distribution Unit, Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C.

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Cover photos: Asif Faiz

Asif Faiz is currently chief of the Infrastructure and Urban Development Operations Division of the

World Bank's Latin America and the Caribbean Country Department I. Christopher S. Weaver and

Michael P. Walsh coauthored this book as consultants to the World Bank.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Faiz, Asif.

Air pollution from motor vehicles: standards and technologies

for controlling emissions/ Asif Faiz, Christopher S. Weaver, Michael P.

Walsh, with contributions by Surhid Gautam and Lit-Mian Chan.

P. cm.

Includes bibliographical references (p. ).

ISBN 0-8213-3444-1

1. Motor vehicles-Pollution control devices. 2. Automobiles￾Motors-Exhaust gas-Law and legislation-United States.

I. Weaver, Christopher S. II. Walsh, Michael P. III. Title.

TL214.P6F35 1996

363.73'1-dc2O 95-37837

CIP

Contents

Preface xlii

Acknowledgments xvii

Participants at the lTNEP Workshop xix

Chapter 1 Emission Standards and Regulations 1

International Standards 2

US Standards 2

UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) and European Union (EU) Standards 6

Country and Other Standards 9

Argentina I 1

Australia II

Brazil 12

Canada 13

Chile 14

Cbina 15

Colombia 15

Eastern European Countries and the Russian Federation 15

Hong Kong 16

India 1 7

Japan 18

Republic of Korea 18

Malaysia 19

Mexico 19

SaudiArabia 19

Singapore 19

Taiwan (China) 20

Thailand 20

Compliance with Standards 21

Certiffcation or Type Approval 21

Assembly Line Testing 22

In-Use Surveillance and Recall 22

Warranty 23

On-Board Diagnostic Systems 23

Alternatives to Emission Standards 23

References 24

Chapter 2 Quantifying Vehicle Emissions 25

Emissions Measurement and Testing Procedures 25

Exhaust Emissions Testing for Light-Duty Vehicles 25

Exhaust Emissions Testing for Motorcycles and Mopeds 29

Exhaust Emissions Testingfor Heavy-Duty Vehicle Engines 29

V

vi Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles

Crankcase Emissions 32

Evaporative Emissions 32

Refueling Emissions 33

On-Road Exhaust Emissions 33

Vehicle Emission Factors 33

Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles 37

Diesel-Fueled Vehicles 39

Motorcycles 43

References 46

Appendix 2.1 Selected Exhaust Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles 49

Appendix 2.2 Selected Exhaust Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for Diesel-Fueled Vehicles 57

Chapter 3 Vehicle Technology for Controlling Emissions 63

Automotive Engine Types 64

Spark-Ignition (Otto) Engines 64

Diesel Engines 64

Rotary (Wankel) Engines 65

Gas-Turbine (Brayton) Engines 65

Steam (Rankine Engines) 65

Stirling Engines 65

Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 65

Control Technology for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles (Spark-Ignition Engines) 65

Air-Fuel Ratio 66

Electronic Control Systems 66

Catalytic Converters 67

Crankcase Emissions and Control 67

Evaporative Emissions and Control 67

Fuel Dispensing/Distribution Emissions and Control 69

Control Technology for Diesel-Fueled Vehicles (Compression-Ignition Engines) 69

Engine Design 70

Exhaust Aftertreatment 71

Emission Control Options and Costs 73

Gasoline-Fueled Passenger Cars and Light-Duty Trucks 73

Heavy-Duty Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles 76

Motorcycles 76

Diesel-Fueled Vehicles 76

References 79

Appendix 3.1 Emission Control Technology for Spark-Ignition (Otto) Engines 81

Appendix 3.2 Emission Control Technology for Compression-Ignition (Diesel) Engines 101

Appendix 3.3 The Potential for Improved Fuel Economy 119

Chapter 4 Controlling Emissions from In-Use Vehicles 127

Inspection and Maintenance Programs 127

Vehicle Types Covered 129

Inspection Procedures for Vehicles with Spark-lgnition Engines 130

Exhaust Emissions 131

Evaporative Emissions 133

Motorcycle White Smoke Emissions 133

Inspection Procedures for Vehicles with Diesel Engines 133

Institutional Setting for Inspection and Maintenance 135

Centralized I/M 136

Decentralized lIM 137

Comparison of Centralized and Decentralized IIM Programs 138

Inspection Frequency 140

Vehicle Registration 140

Roadside Inspection Programs 140

Contents vii

Emission Standards for Inspection and Maintenance Programs 141

Costs and Benefits of Inspection and Maintenance Programs 144

Emission Improvements and Fuel Economy 149

Impact on Tampering and Misfueling 151

Cost-Effectiveness 153

International Experience with Inspection and Maintenance Programs 154

Remote Sensing of Vehicle Emissions 159

Evaluation of Remote-Sensing Data 162

On-Board Diagnostic Systems 164

Vehicle Replacement and Retrofit Programs 164

Scrappage and Relocation Programs 165

Vehicle Replacement 165

Retrofit Programs 166

Intelligent Vehicle-Highway Systems 167

References 168

Appendix 4.1 Remote Sensing of Vehicle Emissions: Operating Principles, Capabilities, and Limitations 171

Chapter 5 Fuel Options for Controlling Emissions 175

Gasoline 176

Lead and Octane Number 176

Fuel Volatility 179

Olefins 180

Aromatic Hydrocarbons 180

DistiUation Properties 181

Oxygenates 182

Sulfur 183

Fuel Additives to Control Deposits 184

Reformulated GasolUne 184

Diesel 186

Sulfur Content 187

Cetane Number 188

Aromatic Hydrocarbons 188

Other Fuel Properties 189

Fuel Additives 190

Effect of Diesel Fuel Properties on Emissions: Summary of EPEFE Results 191

Alternative Fuels 193

Natural Gas 195

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 200

Methanol 202

Etbanol 204

Blodiesel 206

Hydrogen 210

Electric and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles 211

Factors Influencing the Large-Scale Use of Alternative Fuels 213

Cost 213

End-Use Considerations 215

Lffe-Cycle Emissions 216

Conclusions 218

References 219

Appendix 5.1 International Use of Lead in Gasoline 223

Appendix 5.2 Electric and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles 227

Appendix 5.3 Alternative Fuel Options for Urban Buses in Santiago, Chile: A Case Study 237

Abbreviations and Conversion Factors 241

Country Index 245

viii Ar Polutionfrom Motor Vehicles

Boxes

Box 2.1 Factors Influencing MotorVehicle Emissions 34

Box 2.2 Development of Vehicle EmissionsTesting Capability inThailand 36

Box 3.1 Trap-Oxidizer Development in Greece 72

Box A3.1 .1 Compression Ratio, Octane, and Fuel Efficiency 90

Box 4.1 Effectiveness of California's Decentralized Smog Check" Program 128

Box 4.2 Experience with British Columbia's AirCare I/M Program 129

Box 4.3 On-Road Smoke Enforcement in Singapore 142

Box 4.4 ReplacingTrabants andWartburgs with CleanerAutomobiles in Hungary 167

Box 5.1 Gasoline Blending Components 176

Box 5.2 Low-Lead Gasoline as aTransitional Measure 178

Box 5.3 Use of Oxygenates in Motor Gasolines 182

Box 5.4 CNG in Argentina: An Alternative Fuel for Buenos Aires Metropolitan Region 196

Box 5.5 Brazil's 199OAlcohol Crisis: the Search for Solutions 207

Box 5.6 Electric Vehicle Program for Kathmandu, Nepal 214

Box 5.7 Ethanol in Brazil 216

Box 5.8 Compressed Natural Gas in New Zealand 217

Figures

Figure 2.1 Exhaust Emissions Test Procedure for Light-Duty Vehicles 26

Figure 2.2 Typical Physical Layout of an EmissionsTesting Laboratory 27

Figure 2.3 U.S. EmissionsTest Driving Cycle for Light-DutyVehicles (FTP-75) 27

Figure 2.4 Proposed U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency US06 EmissionsTest Cycle 28

Figure 2.5 European Emissions Test Driving Cycle (ECE-1 5) 30

Figure 2.6 European Extra-Urban Driving Cycle (EUDC) 30

Figure 2.7 European Emissions Test Driving Cycle for Mopeds 31

Figure 2.8 Relationship between Vehicle Speed and Emissions for Uncontrolled Vehicles 35

Figure 2.9 Effect of Average Speed on Emissions and Fuel Consumption for European Passenger Cars without

Catalyst (INRETS Driving Cycles; Fully Warmed-Up In-use Test Vehicles) 39

Figure 2.10 Cumulative Distribution of Emissions from Passenger Cars in Santiago, Chile 40

Figure 2.11 Effect of Average Speed on Emissions and Fuel Consumption for Heavy-Duty Swiss Vehicles 42

Figure 2.12 Effect of Constant Average Speed and Road Gradient on Exhaust Emissions and Fuel Consumption

for a 40-ton Semi-TrailerTruck 43

Figure 2.13 Cumulative Distribution of Emissions from Diesel Buses in Santiago, Chile 44

Figure 2.14 Smoke Opacity Emissions from Motorcycles in Bangkok,Thailand 46

Figure 3.1 Effect of Air-Fuel Ratio on Spark-Ignition Engine Emissions 66

Figure 3.2 Types of Catalytic Converters 68

Figure 3.3 Effect of Air-Fuel Ratio on Three-Way Catalyst Efficiency 69

Figure 3.4 Hydrocarbon Vapor Emissions from Gasoline Distribution 70

Figure 3.5 Nitrogen Oxide and Particulate Emissions from Diesel-Fueled Engines 71

Figure A3.1.1 Combustion in a Spark-Ignition Engine 81

Figure A3.1.2 Piston and Cylinder Arrangement of a Typical Four-Stroke Engine 84

Figure A3.1.3 Exhaust Scavenging in a Two-Stroke Gasoline Engine 85

Figure A3.1.4 Mechanical Layout of a Typical Four-Stroke Engine 86

FigureA3.1.5 Mechanical Layout of aTypical Two-Stroke Motorcycle Engine 86

Figure A3.1.6 Combustion Rate and Crank Angle for Conventional and Fast-Burn Combustion Chambers 89

Contents im.

Figure A3.2.1 Diesel Combustion Stages 102

FigureA3.2.2 Hydrocarbon and Nitrogen Oxide Emissions for Different Types of Diesel Engines 103

FigureA3.2.3 Relationship betweenAir-Fuel Ratio and Emissions for a Diesel Engine 106

Figure A3.2.4 Estimated PM-NO,Trade-Off overTransientTest Cycle for Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines 109

Figure A3.2.5 Diesel Engine Combustion ChamberTypes 110

Figure A3.2.6 Bus Plume Volume for Concentration Comparison between Vertical and Horizontal Exhausts 116

Figure A3.2.7 Truck Plume Volume for Concentration Comparison between Vertical and Horizontal Exhausts 116

Figure A3.3.1 Aerodynamic Shape Improvements for an Articulated Heavy-Duty Truck 120

Figure A3.3.2 TechnicalApproaches to Reducing Fuel Economy of Light-DutyVehicles 121

Figure 4.1 Effect of Maintenance on Emissions and Fuel Economy of Buses in Santiago, Chile 130

Figure 4.2 Schematic Illustration of the IM240Test Equipment 132

Figure 4.3 Bosch Number Compared with Measured Particulate Emissions for Buses in Santiago, Chile 134

Figure 4.4 Schematic Illustration of a Typical Combined Safety and Emissions Inspection Station: Layout and

Equipment 137

Figure 4.5 Schematic Illustration of an Automated Inspection Process 138

Figure 4.6 Cumulative Distribution of CO Emissions from Passenger Cars in Bangkok 143

Figure 4.7 Cumulative Distribution of Smoke Opacity for Buses in Bangkok 143

Figure 4.8 Illustration of a Remote Sensing System for CO and HC Emissions 160

Figure 4.9 Distribution of CO Concentrations Determined by Remote Sensing of Vehicle Exhaust in Chicago

in 1990 (15,586 Records) 161

Figure 4.10 Distribution of CO Concentrations Determined by Remote Sensing of Vehicle Exhaust

in Mexico City 161

Figure 4.11 Distribution of HC Concentrations Determined by Remote Sensing of Vehicle Exhaust

in Mexico City 161

Figure 5.1 Range of Petroleum Products Obtained from Distillation of Crude Oil 186

Figure 5.2 A Comparison of the Weight of On-Board Fuel and Storage Systems for CNG and Gasoline 199

FigureA5.2.1 Vehicle Cruise Propulsive Power Required as a Function of Speed and Road Gradient 228

Tables

Table 1.1 Progression of U.S. Exhaust Emission Standards for Light-Duty Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles 3

Table 1.2 U.S. Exhaust Emission Standards for Passenger Cars and Light-Duty Vehicles Weighing Less than 3,750

PoundsTest Weight 4

Table 1.3 U.S. Federal and California Motorcycle Exhaust Emission Standards 5

Table 1.4 U.S. Federal and California Exhaust Emission Standards for Medium-Duty Vehicles 6

Table 1.5 U.S. Federal and California Exhaust Emission Standards for Heavy-Duty and Medium-Duty Engines 7

Table 1.6 European Emission Standards for Passenger Cars with up to 6 Seats 9

Table 1.7 European Union 1994 Exhaust Emission Standards for Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles (Ministerial

Directive 93/59/EEC) 10

Table 1.8 ECE and Other European Exhaust Emission Standards for Motorcycles and Mopeds 10

Table 1.9 Smoke Limits Specified in ECE Regulation 24.03 and EU Directive 72/306/EEC 11

Table 1.10 European Exhaust Emission Standards for Heavy-Duty Vehicles forType Approval 11

Table 1.11 Exhaust Emission Standards (Decree 875/94), Argentina 12

Table 1.12 Exhaust Emission Standards for MotorVehicles, Australia 13

Table 1.13 Exhaust Emission Standards for Light-DutyVehicles (FTP-75Test Cycle),Brazil 13

Table 1.14 Exhaust Emission Standards for Heavy-DutyVehicles (ECE R49Test Cycle), Brazil 14

Table 1.15 Exhaust Emission Standards for Light- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Canada 14

Table 1.16 Exhaust Emission Limits for Gasoline-Powered Heavy-Duty Vehicles (1983), China 15

Table 1.17 Proposed Exhaust Emission Limits for Gasoline-Powered Heavy-Duty Vehicles, China 16

Table 1.18 List of Revised or New Emission Standards and Testing Procedures, China (Effective 1994) 16

x Air PoTlutlonfmm Motor Vebicles

Table 1.19 Emission Limits for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles for Idle and Low Speed Conditions, Colombia 16

Table 1.20 Exhaust Emission Standards for Gasoline- and Diesel-Fueled Vehicles, Colombia 17

Table 1.21 Summary of Vehicle Emission Regulations in Eastern Europe 17

Table 1.22 Exhaust Emission Standards for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles, India 18

Table 1.23 Motorcycle Emission Standards, Republic of Korea 18

Table 1.24 Emission Standards for Light-DutyVehicles, Mexico 19

Table 1.25 Exhaust Emission Standards for Light-DutyTrucks and Medium-DutyVehicles by Gross Vehicle Weight,

Mexico 20

Table 1.26 Exhaust Emission Standards for Motorcycles,Taiwan (China) 21

Table 1.27 Exhaust Emission Standards, Thailand 21

Table 2.1 Estimated Emission Factors for U.S. Gasoline-Fueled Passenger Cars with Different Emission Control

Technologies 37

Table 2.2 Estimated Emission Factors for U.S. Gasoline-Fueled Medium-Duty Trucks with Different Emission

Control Technologies 38

Table 2.3 Estimated Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for U.S. Diesel-Fueled Passenger Cars and Light￾Duty Trucks 41

Table 2.4 Estimated Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for U.S. Heavy-Duty Diesel-Fueled Trucks

and Buses 41

Table 2.5 Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for Uncontrolled U.S.Two- and Four-Stroke

Motorcycles 45

Table 2.6 Emission Factors for Uncontrolled European Motorcycles and Mopeds 45

Table 2.7 Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for UncontrolledThai Motorcycles 45

TableA2.1.1 Exhaust Emissions, European Vehicles, 1970-90 Average 49

TableA2.1.2 Exhaust Emissions, European Vehicles, 1995 Representative Fleet 49

TableA2.1.3 Estimated Emissions and Fuel Consumption, European Vehicles, Urban Driving 50

TableA2.1.4 Estimated Emissions and Fuel Consumption, European Vehicles, Rural Driving 51

TableA2.1.5 Estimated Emissions and Fuel Consumption, European Vehicles, Highway Driving 52

Table A2.1.6 Automobile Exhaust Emissions, Chile 53

Table A2.1.7 Automobile Exhaust Emissions as a Function ofTest Procedure and Ambient Temperature,

Finland 53

TableA2.1.8 Automobile Exhaust Emissions as a Function of Driving Conditions, France 53

Table A2.1.9 Automobile Exhaust Emissions and Fuel Consumption as a Function of Driving Conditions and

Emission Controls, Germany 53

TableA2.1.10 Exhaust Emissions, Light-Duty Vehicles and Mopeds, Greece 54

Table A2.1.11 Hot-Start Exhaust Emissions, Light-Duty Vehicles, Greece 54

TableA2.1.12 Exhaust Emissions, Light-Duty Vehicles and 2-3 Wheelers, India 54

TableA2.2.1 Exhaust Emissions, European Cars 57

TableA2.2.2 Estimated Emissions and Fuel Consumption, European Cars and Light-Duty Vehicles 57

Table A2.2.3 Estimated Emissions, European Medium- to Heavy-Duty Vehicles 58

Table A2.2.4 Exhaust Emissions, European Heavy-Duty Vehicles 58

Table A2.2.5 Exhaust Emissions and Fuel Consumption, Utility and Heavy-Duty Trucks, France 58

TableA2.2.6 Exhaust Emissions, Santiago Buses, Chile 59

Table A2.2.7 Exhaust Emissions, London Buses, United Kingdom 59

Table A2.2.8 Exhaust Emissions, Utility and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Netherlands 59

Table A2.2.9 Automobile Exhaust Emissions as a Function of Driving Conditions, France 59

Table A2.2.10 Automobile Exhaust Emissions and Fuel Consumption as a Function ofTesting Procedures,

Germany 60

TableA2.2.11 Exhaust Emissions, Cars, Buses, and Trucks, Greece 60

Table A2.2.12 Exhaust Emissions, Light-Duty Vehicles and Trucks, India 60

Contents xi

Table 3.1 Automaker Estimates of Emission Control Technology Costs for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles 74

Table 3.2 Exhaust Emission Control Levels for Light-Duty Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles 75

Table 3.3 Recommended Emission Control Levels for Motorcycles in Thailand 76

Table 3.4 Industry Estimates of Emission Control Technology Costs for Diesel-Fueled Vehicles 77

Table 3.5 Emission Control Levels for Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicles 78

Table 3.6 Emission Control Levels for Light-Duty Diesel Vehicles 78

Table A3.1.1 Effect of Altitude on Air Density and Power Output from Naturally Aspirated Gasoline Engines in

Temperate Regions 87

TableA3.1.2 Cold-Start and Hot-Start Emissions with Different Emission ControlTechnologies 91

TableA3.1.3 Engine Performance and Exhaust Emissions for a Modified Marine Two-Stroke Engine 93

TableA3.1.4 Exhaust Emissions and Fuel Economy for a Fuel-Injected Scooter 94

TableA3.1.5 Moped Exhaust Emissions 97

TableA3.3.1 Energy Efficiency of Trucks in Selected Countries 122

Table A3.3.2 International Gasoline and Diesel Prices 124

Table A3.3.3 Gasoline Consumption byTwo- andThree-Wheelers 125

Table 4.1 Characteristics of Existing I/M Programs for Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicles in the United States, 1994 136

Table 4.2 Estimated Costs of Centralized and Decentralized I/M Programs in Arizona, 1990 139

Table 4.3 Schedule of Compulsory Motor Vehicle Inspection in Singapore by Vehicle Age 141

Table 4.4 Inspection and Maintenance Standards Recommended forThailand 145

Table 4.5 Distribution of Carbon Monoxide and Hydrocarbon Emissions from 17,000 Short Tests on Gasoline

Cars in Finland 145

Table 4.6 In-Service Vehicle Emission Standards in the European Union, 1994 146

Table 4.7 In-Service Vehicle Emission Standards in Argentina, New Zealand, and East Asia,1994 147

Table 4.8 In-Service Vehicle Emission Standards in Poland, 1995 148

Table 4.9 In-Service Vehicle Emission Standards for Inspection and Maintenance Programs in Selected U.S.

Jurisdictions, 1994 148

Table 4.10 U.S. IM240 Emission Standards 149

Table 4.11 Alternative Options for a Heavy-Duty Vehicle I/M Program for Lower Fraser Valley, British Columbia,

Canada 150

Table 4.12 Estimated Emission Factors for U.S. Gasoline-Fueled Automobiles with Different Emission Control

Technologies and Inspection and Maintenance Programs 151

Table 4.13 Estimated Emission Factors for U.S. Heavy-Duty Vehicles with Different Emission Control Technologies

and Inspection and Maintenance Programs 152

Table 4.14 U.S. EPA's I/M Performance Standards and Estimated Emissions Reductions from Enhanced I/M

Programs 153

Table 4.15 Effect of Engine Tune-Up on Emissions for European Vehicles 153

Table 4.16 Tampering and Misfueling Rates in the United States 154

Table 4.17 In-Use Emission Limits for Light-Duty Vehicles in Mexico 158

Table 4.18 Remote Sensing CO and HC Emissions Measurements for Selected Cities 163

Table 5.1 Incremental Costs of Controlling Gasoline Parameters 185

Table 5.2 Influence of Crude OilType on Diesel Fuel Characteristics 187

Table 5.3 Influence of Diesel Fuel Properties on Exhaust Emissions 190

Table 5.4 Properties of Diesel Test Fuels Used in EPEFE Study 192

Table 5.5 Change in Light-Duty Diesel Vehicle Emissions with Variations in Diesel Fuel Properties 192

Table 5.6 Change in Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicle Emissions with Variations in Diesel Fuel Properties 193

Table 5.7 Toxic Emissions from Gasoline and Alternative Fuels in Light-Duty Vehicles with Spark-Ignition

Engines 194

xdi Air Podltion from Motor Vebhcles

Table 5.8 Wholesale and Retail Prices of Conventional and Alternative Fuels in the United States, 1992 194

Table 5.9 Properties of Conventional and Alternative Fuels 195

Tables 5.10 Inspection and Maintenance (Air Care) Failure Rates for In-Use Gasoline, Propane, and Natural Gas

Light-Duty Vehicles in British Columbia, Canada, April 1993 195

Table 5.11 Emissions Performance of Chrysler Natural Gas Vehicles 198

Table 5.12 Emissions from Diesel and Natural Gas Bus Engines in British Columbia, Canada 198

Table 5.13 Emissions from Diesel and Natural Gas Bus Engines in the Netherlands 198

Table 5.14 Comparison of Emissions and Fuel Consumption for Five Modern Dual-Fueled European Passenger

Cars Operating on Gasoline and LPG 201

Table 5.15 Pollutant Emissions from Light- and Heavy-Duty LPG Vehicles in California 201

Table 5.16 Standards and Certification Emissions for Production of M85 Vehicles Compared withTheir Gasoline

Counterparts 203

Table 5.17 Average Emissions from Gasohol and Ethanol Light-Duty Vehicles in Brazil 205

Table 5.18 Physical Properties of Biodiesel and Conventional Diesel Fuel 208

Table 5.19 Costs of Substitute Fuels 214

Table 5.20 Comparison of Truck Operating Costs Using Alternative Fuels 215

Table 5.21 Alternative Fuel Vehicles: Refueling Infrastructure Costs and Operational Characteristics 217

Table 5.22 Aggregate Life-Cycle Emissions for Gasoline-Fueled Cars with Respect to Fuel Production, Vehicle

Producion, and In-Service Use 218

Table 5.23 Aggregate Life-Cycle Emissions from Cars for Conventional and Alternative Fuels 218

TableA5.1.1 Estimated World Use of Leaded Gasoline, 1993 224

TableA5.2.1 Characteristics of Electric Motors for EVApplications 229

TableA5.2.2 Goals of the U.S. Advanced Battery Coalition 231

TableA5.2.3 Specific EnergiesAchieved and Development Goals for Different BatteryTechnologies 232

TableA5.2.4 Relative Emissions from Battery-Electric and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles 234

TableA5.2.5 Examples of Electric Vehicles Available in 1993 234

TableA5.3.1 Emissions of Buses with Alternative Fuels, Santiago, Chile 238

TableA5.3.2 Economics ofAlternative Fuel Options for Urban Buses in Santiago, Chile 238

Preface

Because of their versatility, flexibility, and low initial Air Pollution in the Developing World

cost, motorized road vehicles overwhelmingly domi￾nate the markets for passenger and freight transport Air pollution is an important public health problem in

throughout the developing world. In all but the poorest most cities of the developing world. Pollution levels in

developing countries, economic growth has triggered a megacities such as Bangkok, Cairo, Delhi and Mexico

boom in the number and use of motor vehicles. Al- City exceed those in any city in the industrialized coun￾though much more can and should be done to encour- tries. Epidemiological studies show that air pollution in

age a balanced mix of transport modes-including developing countries accounts for tens of thousands of

nonmotorized transport in small-scale applications and excess deaths and billions of dollars in medical costs

rail in high-volume corridors-motorized road vehicles and lost productivity every year. These losses, and the

will retain their overwhelming dominance of the trans- associated degradation in quality of life, impose a signif￾port sector for the foreseeable future. icant burden on people in all sectors of society, but es￾Owing to their rapidly increasing numbers and very pecially the poor.

limited use of emission control technologies, motor ve- Common air pollutants in urban cities in developing

hicles are emerging as the largest source of urban air countries include:

pollution in the developing world. Other adverse im￾pacts of motor vehicle use include accidents, noise, * Respirable particulate matter from smoky diesel ve￾congestion, increased energy consumption and green- hicles, two-stroke motorcycles and 3-wheelers,

house gas emissions. Without timely and effective mea- burning of waste and firewood, entrained road

sures to mitigate the adverse impacts of motor vehicle dust, and stationary industrial sources.

use, the living environment in the cities of the develop- * Lead aerosol from combustion of leaded gasoline.

ing world will continue to deteriorate and become in- * Carbon monoxide from gasoline vehicles and burn￾creasingly unbearable. ing of waste and firewood.

This handbook presents a state-of-the-art review of * Photochemical smog (ozone) produced by the re￾vehicle emission standards and testing procedures and action of volatile organic compounds and nitrogen

attempts to synthesize worldwide experience with ve- oxides in the presence of sunlight; motor vehicle

hicle emission control technologies and their applica- emissions are a major source of nitrogen oxides and

tions in both industrialized and developing countries. It volatile organic compounds.

is one in a series of publications on vehicle-related pol- * Sulfur oxides from combustion of sulfur-containing

lution and control measures prepared by the World fuels and industrial processes.

Bank in collaboration with the United Nations Environ- * Secondary particulate matter formed in the atmo￾ment Programme to underpin the Bank's overall objec- sphere by reactions involving ozone, sulfur and ni￾tive of promoting transport development that is trogen oxides and volatile organic compounds.

environmentally sustainable and least damaging to hu- * Known or suspected carcinogens such as benzene,

man health and welfare. 1,3 butadiene, aldehydes, and polynuclear aromatic

xiii