Air Pollution and Turbulence: Modeling and Applications

Air Pollution

and Turbulence

Modeling and Applications

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Air Pollution

and Turbulence

Modeling and Applications

Edited by

Davidson Moreira and

Marco Vilhena

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Boca Raton London New York

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Group

6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300

Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4398-1144-3 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts

have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume

responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers

have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to

copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has

not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit￾ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,

including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,

without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.

com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood

Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and

registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC,

a separate system of payment has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used

only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Air pollution and turbulence : modeling and applications / edited by Davidson Moreira

and Marco Vilhena.

p. cm.

“A CRC title.”

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-4398-1144-3 (alk. paper)

1. Air--Pollution--Simulation methods. 2. Atmospheric turbulence--Simulation

methods. I. Moreira, Davidson. II. Vilhena, Marco.

TD890.A364 2010

628.5’3011--dc22 2009039105

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

Dedication

We thank God for the opportunity given to mankind to uncover

the beauty and mystery of the masterpiece of creation: Nature.

To my daughter, Evelyn In memoriam to my father, Paulo

To my wife, Márcia To my mother, Ieda

I give my gratitude for

her loving patience

To my sister, Tânia

To my wife, Sônia

and support during this With all my love and gratitude,

episode of my life,

Davidson Martins Moreira Marco Túllio M. B. de Vilhena

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

vii

Contents

Foreword ...................................................................................................................ix

Preface....................................................................................................................xvii

Editors .....................................................................................................................xix

Contributors ............................................................................................................xxi

Chapter 1 Deposition, Transformation, and Remobilization of Soot and

Diesel Particulates on Building Surfaces .............................................1

Peter Brimblecombe and Carlota M. Grossi

Chapter 2 Atmospheric Boundary Layer: Concepts and Measurements ............ 15

Gilberto Fisch

Chapter 3 Turbulence and Dispersion of Contaminants in the Planetary

Boundary Layer .................................................................................. 33

Gervásio Annes Degrazia, Antonio Gledson Oliveira Goulart,

and Debora Regina Roberti

Chapter 4 Parameterization of Convective Boundary Layer Turbulence

and Clouds in Atmospheric Models ...................................................69

Pedro M. M. Soares, João Teixeira, and Pedro M. A. Miranda

Chapter 5 Mathematical Air Pollution Models: Eulerian Models .................... 131

Tiziano Tirabassi

Chapter 6 Analytical Models for the Dispersion of Pollutants in

Low Wind Conditions ...................................................................... 157

Pramod Kumar and Maithili Sharan

Chapter 7 On the GILTT Formulation for Pollutant Dispersion Simulation

in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer ................................................ 179

Davidson Martins Moreira, Marco Túllio M. B. de

Vilhena, and Daniela Buske

Chapter 8 An Outline of Lagrangian Stochastic Dispersion Models ...............203

Domenico Anfossi and Silvia Trini Castelli

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

viii Contents

Chapter 9 Atmospheric Dispersion with a Large-Eddy Simulation:

Eulerian and Lagrangian Perspectives ............................................. 237

Umberto Rizza, Giulia Gioia, Guglielmo Lacorata,

Cristina Mangia, and Gian Paolo Marra

Chapter 10 Photochemical Air Pollution Modeling: Toward Better Air

Quality Management ........................................................................269

Carlos Borrego, Ana Isabel Miranda, and Joana Ferreira

Chapter 11 Inversion of Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations ................................287

Ian G. Enting

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

ix

Foreword

Air pollution is inherently linked to human activities and was already mentioned as a

nuisance in antic Roman texts and in the middle ages. The industrial revolution in the

nineteenth century worsened its effects and increasingly turned it to a nonlocal prob￾lem. Parallel developments in physical sciences provided new tools to address this

problem. Understanding the rate and patterns of atmospheric dispersion is crucial for

environmental planning (location of industrial plants) and for forecasting high pol￾lution episodes (above legislation thresholds inducing detrimental effects on human

health, ecosystems, and/or materials). Last but not least, local emissions are trans￾ported by air motions to create regional environmental problems, and, fi nally, the

accumulation of pollutants in the global atmosphere yield and interfere with climate

change processes. Consequently, there is a strong need for developing ever-better

models and assessment tools for air pollution concentration, dispersion, and effects.

These tools can span from simple analytical models for monitoring and predicting

short-range effects to regional or global three-dimensional models assimilating a

wide range of physical and chemical in situ and satellite observations. The breadth of

the different mathematical, physical, chemical, and biological processes and issues

has generated a lot of basic and applied research that should also take into account

the needs of environmental managers, physicians, and also of process engineers and

lawyers. No book can tackle all these issues in a balanced way; therefore, this book

mainly addresses issues of atmospheric dispersion modelling and their effects on

building surfaces.

To assess spatial and temporal distributions of pollutants and chemical species in

the air and their deposition on the Earth’s surface, atmospheric dispersion and chem￾ical transport models are used at different scales, addressing different applications

from emergency preparedness, ecotoxicology, and air pollution effects on human

health to global atmospheric chemical composition and climate change. During the

last two decades, several basic aspects of air pollution modeling have been substan￾tially developed, thanks to advances in computer technologies and numerical math￾ematics, as well as in the physics of atmospheric turbulence and the atmospheric

boundary layer (ABL).

Most air quality modeling systems consist of a meteorological model coupled

offl ine or online to emission and air pollution models, and, sometimes, also to a

population-exposure model. The meteorological model calculates three-dimensional

fi elds of wind, temperature, relative humidity, pressure, and, in some cases, turbu￾lent diffusivity, clouds, and precipitation. The emissions model estimates the amount

and chemical composition of primary pollutants based on process information (e.g.,

traffi c intensity) and day-specifi c meteorology (e.g., temperature for biogenic emis￾sions). The outputs of these emission and meteorological models are then inputs to

the air pollution model, which calculates concentrations and deposition rates of gases

and aerosols as a function of space and time. There are various mathematical

models that can be used to simulate meteorology and air pollution in a mesoscale

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

x Foreword

domain (San Jose et al., 2008). Although models differ in their treatment of different

mechanisms and feedbacks, they all employ a similar framework and consist of the

same major modules:

• Transport and diffusion—calculating three-dimensional motion of gases

and aerosols in a gridded model domain

• Gas-phase chemistry—calculating changes in gaseous concentrations due

to chemical transformations

• Aerosol—calculating size distribution and chemical composition of aero￾sols accounting for chemical and physical transformations

• Cloud/fog meteorology—calculating physical characteristics of clouds

and fog based on the information from the meteorological model (or from

observations)

• Cloud/fog chemistry—calculating changes in chemical concentrations in

clouds/fog water

• Wet deposition—calculating the rates of deposition due to precipitation

(and, possibly, cloud impaction and fog settling) and the corresponding

changes in chemical concentrations

• Dry deposition—calculating the rates of dry deposition for gases and

aerosols and the corresponding changes in their concentrations

Consequently, the quality of the air pollution forecasts using such systems critically

depends on the adequacy in mapping emissions, representing meteorological fi elds,

and modeling the transport, dispersion, and transformation of chemicals/pollutants.

Various scientifi c developments now allow models to reasonably predict simple fl ow

situations within a factor of 2 or so.

What is more challenging is to predict episodes of high pollutant concentrations,

which may cause dramatic impacts on human health. Such situations, moreover, are

often induced by special situations, such as complex terrains, low winds, and very

stable stratifi cation causing shallow ABLs with low level of turbulent mixing. These

situations create problems for current methods and models to realistically reproduce

meteorological input fi elds.

The key physical mechanisms controlling concentrations of pollutants in the

atmosphere are advection, turbulent diffusion, wet and dry deposition, and gravita￾tional settling. Their representation requires 3D fi elds of the wind velocity and direc￾tion, static stability (lapse rate), the ABL height (often called “mixing height”), basic

characteristics of turbulence (eddy diffusivities and velocity variances across the

atmosphere, and turbulent fl uxes of momentum, buoyancy, and scalars at the surface

and at the ABL outer boundary), and precipitation. Additionally, boundary condi￾tions described by the basic physical and geometric characteristics of the surface (in

particular, the roughness lengths for momentum and scalars, and the displacement

heights) are very critical.

Most of the emissions are situated and most of the pollutants are dispersed within

the ABL, whose upper boundary (the layer at which the intensity of turbulence

strongly drops down) serves as a kind of a semi-impervious lid. Hence the mecha￾nisms controlling concentrations strongly depend on the ABL turbulence, and, fi rst

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

Foreword xi

of all, on the ABL height. The temporal and spatial variations in the ABL height

and the entrainment processes at the ABL upper boundary lead to the penetration of

pollutants from the ABL to the free troposphere, and, vice versa, to the intrusion of

some chemical compounds (e.g., ozone) from the upper atmospheric layers down to

the surface. Physical processes controlling the ABL height and the turbulent entrain￾ment (e.g., Zilitinkevich, 1991; Zilitinkevich et al., 2007a; and references therein)

are, therefore, of crucial importance for the air-pollution applications.

Furthermore, some physical processes at the ABL upper boundary, crucially

important for air pollution modelling, are still insuffi ciently understood, e.g., turbu￾lent entrainment in rapidly deepening convective ABLs and nonsteady interactions

between the stable ABLs and the free fl ow. The latter are comparatively simple at

mid-latitudes where nocturnal stable ABLs develop on the background of almost

neutrally stratifi ed residual layers, whereas at high latitudes, long-lived stable ABLs

develop against very stable stratifi cation typical of the free troposphere, yielding

the formation of strong capping inversions and making the theory much more

complicated (e.g., Zilitinkevich and Esau, 2007).

For short-range dispersion of simple cases or targeted plumes, one classical modeling

approach is based on using the so-called statistical technique or the eddy diffusivity

concept. Several chapters in this book address new developments with these tech￾niques. Therefore, new developments in turbulence theory and ABLs will have a direct

impact on these techniques as well. For instance, one typical long-lasting issue has

been the turbulence closure for very stable stratifi cation (including the turbulent dif￾fusion formulations), whereby the energetics of turbulence is modeled using solely the

turbulent kinetic energy budget equation, leading to a cut off in turbulence at “super￾critical” stratifi cation, though observations showed the presence of turbulence in typi￾cal atmospheric and oceanic sheared fl ows. The problem was treated heuristically by

prescribing a “minimal diffusivity”—just to avoid the total decay of turbulence. New

insight might come from recent work based on the concept of total turbulent energy and

applicable to “supercritical” fl ows with no cut off (Mauritsen et al., 2007; Zilitinkevich

et al., 2007b; Canuto et al., 2008). Another area of potential development is the gener￾alization of the Monin–Obukhov similarity theory, taking into account the nonlocal

effect of free-fl ow stability on stably stratifi ed ABLs and also nonlocal mixing due to

large-scale, organized eddies in the shear-free convection (Zilitinkevich et al., 2006;

Zilitinkevich and Esau, 2007). Further work is also needed to extend the ABL theory

to the sheared convection and to ABLs over complex and sloping terrains.

During the last decade, meso-scale modeling of pollution dispersion and air

quality employing the integrated modelling approach together with advances in ABL

physics reported above have been developed in both research and operational modes

(see an overview of European models in COST-WMO, 2007).

Short-term pollution episodes occurring during adverse meteorological condi￾tions and causing strong short-term exceedances of air quality standards in ambient

air are presently one of the major concerns for the protection of human health, eco￾systems, and building materials, especially in cities. Reliable urban-scale forecasts

of meteorological fi elds are, therefore, of primary importance for urban emergency

management systems, addressing accidental or terrorist releases, and fi res, of chemi￾cal, radioactive, or biological substances.

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

xii Foreword

The urban environment presents challenges to atmospheric scientists—

theoreticians, experimentalists, and modellers—because of very high roughness

elements penetrating deeply into the ABL (thus requiring the revision of such clas￾sical concepts as the surface layer, roughness length, and displacement height; see

Zilitinkevich et al., 2008), the heterogeneous distribution of surface features, and the

strong spatial and temporal variabilities of surface fl uxes of heat, moisture, momen￾tum, and pollutants. Additionally, the structure of the conurbation may enhance ver￾tical motions, changing the residence times of atmospheric compounds (Hidalgo

et al., 2008) and triggering local meteorological circulations (e.g., caused by “heat

islands”), and the production of condensation nuclei, thus affecting cloud formation,

precipitation patterns, and the radiation balance. The increased relevance of urban

meteorology is refl ected in the number of experimental campaigns performed in

urban areas in Europe and America during the last decade, e.g., BUBBLE (Rotach

et al., 2005), ESCOMPTE (Mestayer et al., 2005), CAPITOUL (Masson et al., 2009),

and MILAGRO (Molina et al., 2007).

The incorporation of urban effects into air pollution models is generally car￾ried out through the “urbanization” of meso-meteorological or numerical weather

prediction (NWP) models (which act as driver models), or using special urban

meteo-pre-processors to improve non-urbanized NWP input data (COST-715,

2005).

The persistently increasing resolution in NWP models allows to reproduce more

realistically urban air fl ows and air pollution, and triggers interest in further experi￾mental and theoretical studies in urban meteorology. Recent works performed by a

consortium of an European project, EMS-FUMAPEX 2005, on integrated systems

for forecasting urban meteorology and air pollution, and by the U.S. EPA and NCAR

communities employing the models MM5 (Dupont et al., 2004; Taha, 2008) and

WRF (Chen et al., 2006), as well as other relevant works (see COST-728, 2009),

have disclosed many options for the urbanization of NWP and meso-meteorological

models.

It goes without saying that no single book could cover the entire range of prob￾lems listed above. The scope of this book does not intend such a grand task. It rather

refl ects and summarizes some recent developments relevant to the key issues in mod￾eling atmospheric turbulence and air pollution. Chapter 1 deals with the modelling

of deposition, transformation and remobilization of soot and diesel particulates on

building surfaces, damage to facades and decoration by air pollution, and the human

health aspect of air pollution (Brimblecombe and Grossi, 2005). Chapter 2 describes

observational studies of convective ABLs over pastures and forests in Amazonia

(Fisch et al., 2004). Chapter 3 discusses the theoretical studies of turbulence and

turbulent diffusion in convective ABLs (Degrazia and Anfossi, 1998; Goulart

et al., 2003). Chapter 4 describes the parameterization of convective turbulence and

clouds in atmospheric models based on the combination of the eddy-diffusivity and

mass-fl ux approaches (Soares et al., 2004; Siebesma et al., 2006). Chapter 5 con￾tains a general discussion of analytical solutions to the advection-diffusion equa￾tions (Tirabassi, 1989, 2003). Chapter 6 describes analytical models for air pollution

including those for low wind conditions (Sharan et al., 1996; Sharan and Modani,

2005). Chapter 7 deals with the analytical solutions to the advection-diffusion equa￾tions using the generalized integral Laplace transform technique (GILTT) and the

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

Foreword xiii

decomposition method (Moreira et al., 2005, 2006, 2009). Chapter 8 describes the

Lagrangian stochastic dispersion models with applications for airborne dispersion in

the ABL (Anfossi et al., 1997, 2006). Chapter 9 deals with the large eddy simulation

(LES) of dispersion within ABLs using the Lagrangian and the Eulerian approaches

(Rizza et al., 2003, 2006). Chapter 10 describes the modelling of photochemical air

pollution for better air quality management (Borrego et al., 2000; Monteiro et al.,

2005). Finally, Chapter 11 describes the analysis of the transport of a trace gas (CO2)

at the global scale and overviews the inverse-problem techniques for deducing emis￾sions from known concentrations (Enting, 2002, 2008).

The book is of interest for the entire boundary-layer meteorology and atmospheric

turbulence communities, including both students and researchers, especially those

interested in the nature, theory, and modeling of air pollution. For a deeper acquain￾tance with these fi elds, we recommend the following monographs and collections of

papers on boundary-layer meteorology: Sorbjan (1989), Zilitinkevich (1991), Garratt

(1992), Kraus and Businger (1994), Holtslag and Duynkerke (1998), Kantha and Clyson

(2000), Baklanov and Grisogono (2007); turbulent diffusion: (Pasquill and Smith,

1983; Arya, 1999); and air pollution (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006; Jacobson, 2005).

A. A. Baklanov

S. M. Joffre

S. S. Zilitinkevich

REFERENCES

Anfossi, D., Ferrero, E., Tinarelli, G., and Alessandrini, S., 1997: A simplifi ed version of

the correct boundary conditions for skewed turbulence in Lagrangian particle models.

Atmospheric Environment, 31, 301–308.

Anfossi, D., Alessandrini, S., Trini Castelli, S., Ferrero, E., Oettl, D., and Degrazia, G., 2006:

Tracer dispersion simulation in low wind speed conditions with a new 2-D Langevin

equation system. Atmospheric Environment, 40, 7234–7245.

Arya, S.P., 1999: Air Pollution Meteorology and Dispersion. Oxford University Press, New

York, 310 pp.

Baklanov, A. and Grisogono B. (Eds.) 2007: Atmospheric Boundary Layers: Nature, Theory

and Application to Environmental Modelling and Security. Springer, Berlin, Germany,

248 pp., ISBN: 978-0-387-74318-9.

Borrego, C., Gomes, P., Barros, N., and Miranda, A.I., 2000: Importance of handling organic atmo￾spheric pollutants for assessing air quality. Journal of Chromatography A, 889, 271–279.

Brimblecombe, P. and Grossi, C.M., 2005: Aesthetic thresholds and blackening of stone build￾ings. Science of the Total Environment, 349, 175–189.

Canuto, V.M., Chen, Y., Howard, A.M., and Esau, I.N., 2008: Stably stratifi ed fl ows: A model

with no Ri(cr). Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 65, 2437–2447.

Chen, F., Tewari, M., Kusaka, H., and Warner, T.L., 2006: Current status of urban modelling in

the community. Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model. Sixth AMS Symposium

on the Urban Environment, Atlanta, GA, January 2006.

COST-715: Fisher, B., Joffre, S., Kukkonen, J., Piringer, M., Rotach, M., and Schatzmann,

(Eds.), 2005: COST 715 Final Report: Meteorology Applied to Urban Air Pollution

Problems. Demetra Ltd Publ., Bulgaria, 276 pp., ISBN 954-9526-30-5.

COST-728: Baklanov, A., Grimmond, S., Mahura, A., and Athanassiadou, M. (Eds.), 2009:

Meteorological and Air Quality Models for Urban Areas. Springer, Berlin, Germany,

2009, 140 pp.

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

xiv Foreword

COST-WMO, Baklanov, A., Fay, B., Kaminski, J., and Sokhi, R. 2007: Overview of Existing

Integrated (Off-line and On-line) Mesoscale Meteorological and Chemical Transport

Modelling Systems in Europe, WMO GAW Report No. 177, Joint Report of COST

Action 728 and GURME, 107 pp, available from: http://www.cost728.org.

Degrazia, G.A. and Anfossi, D., 1998: Estimation of the Kolmogorov constant from classical

statistical diffusion theory. Atmospheric Environment, 32, 3611–3614.

Dupont, S., Otte, T.L., and Ching, S., 2004: Simulation of meteorological fi elds within and

above urban and rural canopies with a mesoscale model (MM5). Boundary-Layer

Meteorology, 113, 111–158.

EMS-FUMAPEX, 2005: Urban Meteorology and Atmospheric Pollution, Baklanov, A., Joffre,

S., and Galmarini, S. (Eds.), Special Issue, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, http://

www.atmos-chem-phys.net/special issue24.html.

Enting, I.G., 2002: Inverse Problems in Atmospheric Constituent Transport. Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge, U.K.

Enting, I.G., 2008: Assessing the information content in environmental modelling: A carbon

cycle perspective. Entropy, 10, 556–575.

Fisch, G, Tota, J., Machado, L.A.T. et al. 2004: The convective boundary layer over pasture

and forest in Amazonia. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 78, 47–59.

Garratt, J.R., 1992: The Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,

U.K., 316 pp.

Goulart, A., Degrazia, G., Rizza, U., and Anfossi, D., 2003: A theoretical model for the

study of convective turbulence decay and comparison with large-eddy simulation data.

Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 107, 143–155.

Hidalgo, J., Masson, V., Baklanov, A., Pigeon, G., and Gimeno, L., 2008: Advances in urban

climate modelling. Trends and directions in climate research. Annals of the New York

Academy of Sciences, 1146, 354–374. doi: 10.1196/annals.1446.015.

Holtslag, A.A.M. and Duynkerke, P.G. (Eds.), 1998: Clear and Cloudy Boundary Layers.

Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, the Netherlands,

372 pp.

Jacobson, M.Z., 2005: Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modelling, 2nd edn. Cambridge University

Press, New York, 813 pp.

Kantha, L.H. and Clyson, C.A., 2000: Small Scale Processes in Geophysical Fluid Flows.

Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 888 pp.

Kraus, E.B. and Businger, J.A., 1994: Atmosphere-Ocean Interaction. Oxford University

Press/Clarendon Press, New York/Oxford, 352 pp.

Masson, V., Gomes, L., Pigeon, G. et al. 2009: The Canopy and Aerosol Particles Interactions

in TOulouse Urban Layer (CAPITOUL) experiment. Meteorology and Atmospheric

Physics, 102, 135–157.

Mauritsen, T., Svensson, G., Zilitinkevich, S.S., Esau, I., Enger, L., and Grisogono, B., 2007:

A total turbulent energy closure model for neutrally and stably stratifi ed atmospheric

boundary layers. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 64, 4117–4130.

Mestayer, P.G., Durand, P., Augustin, P. et al. 2005: The urban boundary layer fi eld experi￾ment over Marseille, UBL/CLU-ESCOMPTE: Experimental set-up and fi rst results.

Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 114, 315–365.

Molina, L.T., Kolb, C.E., de Foy, B. et al. 2007: Air quality in North America’s most populous

city—overview of the MCMA-2003 campaign. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 7,

2447–2473.

Monteiro, A., Vautard, R., Lopes, M., Miranda, A.I., and Borrego, C., 2005: Air pollution fore￾cast in Portugal: A demand from the new Air Quality Framework Directive. Internation

Journal of Environment and Pollution, 25(2), 4–15.

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

Foreword xv

Moreira, D.M., Vilhena, M.T., Tirabassi, T., Buske, D., and Cotta, R.M., 2005: Near

source atmospheric pollutant dispersion using the new GILTT method. Atmospheric

Environment, 39(34), 6290–6295.

Moreira, D.M., Vilhena, M.T., Buske, D., and Tirabassi, T., 2006. The GILTT solution of

the advection–diffusion equation for an inhomogeneous and nonstationary PBL.

Atmospheric Environment, 40, 3186–3194.

Moreira, D.M., Vilhena, M.T., Buske, D., and Tirabassi, T., 2009: The state-of-art of the GILTT

method to simulate pollutant dispersion in the atmosphere. Atmospheric Research, 92, 1–17.

Pasquill, F. and Smith, F.B., 1983: Atmospheric Diffusion. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, U.K.,

437 pp.

Rizza, U., Gioia, G., Mangia, C., and Marra, G.P., 2003: Development of a grid-dispersion

model in a large eddy simulation generated planetary boundary layer. Nuovo Cimento

Sezione C, 26, 297–309.

Rizza, U., Mangia, C., Carvalho, J.C., and Anfossi, D., 2006: Estimation of the Lagrangian

velocity structure function constant C0 by large eddy simulation. Boundary-Layer

Meteorology, 120, 25–37.

Rotach, M.W., Vogt, R., Bernhofer, D. et al. 2005: BUBBLE—An urban boundary layer mete￾orology project. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 81, 231–261.

San Jose, R, Baklanov A., Sokhi R.S., Karatzas, K., and Perez, J.L., 2008: Air quality model￾ing. In: Ecological Models, Vol. 1, Encyclopaedia of Ecology, 5 Vols., Elsevier, Oxford,

U.K., pp. 111–123.

Seinfeld, J.H. and Pandis, S.N., 2006: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics—From Air

Pollution to Climate Change, 2nd edn. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1232 pp., ISBN

9780471720188.

Sharan, M. and Modani, M., 2005: An analytical study for the dispersion of pollutants in a

fi nite layer under low wind conditions. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 162, 1861–1892.

Sharan, M., Singh, M.P., and Yadav, A.K., 1996: A mathematical model for the atmospheric

dispersion in low winds with eddy diffusivities as linear functions of downwind dis￾tance. Atmospheric Environment, 30, 1137–1145.

Siebesma, A.P., Soares, P.M.M., and Teixeira, J., 2006: A combined eddy diffusivity mass￾fl ux approach for the convective boundary layer. Journal of Atmospheric Science, 64,

1230–1248.

Soares, P.M.M., Miranda, P.M.A., Siebesma, A.P., and Teixeira J., 2004: An eddy-diffusivity/

mass-fl ux turbulence closure for dry and shallow cumulus convection. The Quarterly

Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 130, 3365–3384.

Sorbjan, Z., 1989: Structure of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Prentice Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, NJ, 317 pp.

Taha, H., 2008: Sensitivity of the urbanized MM5 (uMM5) to perturbations in surface proper￾ties in Houston Texas. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 127, 193–218.

Tirabassi, T., 1989: Analytical air pollution and diffusion models. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution,

47, 19–24.

Tirabassi, T., 2003: Operational advanced air pollution modeling. Pure and Applied Geophysics,

160(1–2), 5–16.

Zilitinkevich, S.S., 1991: Turbulent Penetrative Convection, Avebury Technical, Aldershot, 180 pp.

Zilitinkevich, S. and Esau, I., 2007: Similarity theory and calculation of turbulent fl uxes

at the surface for the stably stratifi ed atmospheric boundary layers. Boundary-Layer

Meteorology, 125, 193–296.

Zilitinkevich, S.S., Hunt, J.C.R., Grachev, A.A. et al. 2006: The infl uence of large convective

eddies on the surface layer turbulence. The Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological

Society, 132, 1423–1456.

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015

xvi Foreword

Zilitinkevich, S., Esau, I., and Baklanov, A., 2007a: Further comments on the equilibrium

height of neutral and stable planetary boundary layers. The Quarterly Journal of the

Royal Meteorological Society, 133, 265–271.

Zilitinkevich, S.S., Elperin, T., Kleeorin, N., and Rogachevskii, I., 2007b: Energy- and

fl ux-budget (EFB) turbulence closure model for the stably stratifi ed fl ows. Part I: Steady￾state, homogeneous regimes. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 125, 167–192.

Zilitinkevich, S.S., Mammarella, I., Baklanov, A.A., and Joffre, S.M., 2008: The effect of

stratifi cation on the aerodynamic roughness length and displacement height. Boundary￾Layer Meteorolology, 129, 179–190.

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Downloaded by [National Taiwan Ocean University] at 00:17 22 January 2015