Wastewater Treatment: Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Wastewater

Treatment

Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Amy J. Forsgren

Edited by

WATER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

“…a timely publication of relevant technologies to detect, quantify, and treat

PAHs in various environmental matrices including water, wastewater, sewage,

sludge, soil, and sediment. Written by academic and industrial international

experts, the book covers a wide spectrum providing in-depth analysis using

up-to-date references, pilot and full-scale studies, relevant for academic

researchers as well as practicing engineers.”

—Madhumita B Ray, Professor, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering,

Western University, Ontario, Canada

“Wastewater treatment plants are considered as a point of convergence

of a huge diversity of organic contaminants present at low to very low levels

but that may affect our ecosystem when treated wastewaters and sludge

are discharged into the environment; PAHs are one of these concerns. Their

presence in natural waters, wastewaters, sludge, soils, and sediments; their

fate and removal during conventional and advanced wastewater treatments;

and their environmental behavior are of particular interest for engineers,

scientists, policy makers, and are depicted in this book which gives an updated

overview on these relevant topics.”

—Dominique Patureau, INRA, Laboratoire de Biotechnologie de l’Environnement, Narbonne,

France

Get the Latest Technologies for Dealing with PAHs

Ubiquitous and potentially toxic, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

can stay in the environment for long periods of time. And while wastewater

treatment plants do not generally produce PAHs, they are major point-sources

for collection, concentration, and discharge of PAHs, making them of increasing

interest to regulatory agencies. Wastewater Treatment: Occurrence and

Fate of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) discusses sources of PAH

contamination and methods for their removal with both conventional wastewater

treatment and membrane bioreactor systems.

ISBN: 978-1-4822-4317-8

9 781482 243178

90000

K23422

Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Wastewater Treatment

K23422_Cover_PubGr.indd All Pages 3/16/15 9:48 AM

Wastewater

Treatment

Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Series Editor

Amy J. Forsgren

Xylem, Sweden

Wastewater Treatment: Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Amy J. Forsgren

Harmful Algae Blooms in Drinking Water: Removal of

Cyanobacterial Cells and Toxins

Harold W. Walker

ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION

Advances in Water and Wastewater

Transport and Treatment

A SERIES

Wastewater

Treatment

Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Amy J. Forsgren

Edited by

CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Group

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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20150224

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-4318-5 (eBook - PDF)

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have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume

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To Rachel Carson, whose book Silent Spring was a major driving force

behind the creation of the USEPA, and to Frances Oldham Kelsey, the

scientist who put a human face on the words teratogen and mutagen

vii

Contents

Contributors............................................................................................................ix

Acronyms ................................................................................................................xi

1. Introduction.....................................................................................................1

Amy J. Forsgren

2. PAHs in Natural Waters: Natural and Anthropogenic Sources,

and Environmental Behavior..................................................................... 11

Jan Kochany

3. Quantitative Changes of PAHs in Water and in Wastewater

during Treatment Processes .......................................................................47

Maria Włodarczyk-Makuła and Agnieszka Popenda

4. PAHs in Water Resources and Environmental Matrices

in Tunisia..................................................................................................71

Olfa Mahjoub and Imen Haddaoui

5. Occurrence, Removal, and Fate of PAHs and VOCs in Municipal

Wastewater Treatment Plants: A Literature Review.............................. 91

Aleksandra Jelic, Evina Katsou, Simos Malamis, David Bolzonella,

and Francesco Fatone

6. Occurrence, Fate, and Removal of PAHs and VOCs in WWTPs

Using Activated Sludge Processes and Membrane Bioreactors:

Results from Italy and Greece ................................................................. 113

Evina Katsou, Simos Malamis, Daniel Mamais, David Bolzonella,

and Francesco Fatone

7. PAHs in Wastewater and Removal Efficiency in Conventional

Wastewater Treatment Plants................................................................... 141

Vincenzo Torretta

8. PAHs in Wastewater during Dry and Wet Weather ............................ 157

Kenya L. Goodson, Robert Pitt, and Shirley Clark

viii Contents

9. In Situ PAH Sensors................................................................................... 175

Woo Hyoung Lee, Xuefei Guo, Daoli Zhao, Andrea Campiglia,

Jared Church, and Xiangmeng Ma

10. PAHs in Sewage Sludge, Soils, and Sediments.................................... 211

Amy J. Forsgren

ix

Contributors

David Bolzonella

Department of Biotechnology

University of Verona

Verona, Italy

Andrea Campiglia

Department of Chemistry

University of Central Florida

Orlando, Florida

Jared Church

Department of Civil,

Environmental, and

Construction Engineering

University of Central Florida

Orlando, Florida

Shirley Clark

Penn State Harrisburg

Middletown, Pennsylvania

Francesco Fatone

Department of Biotechnology

University of Verona

Verona, Italy

Amy J. Forsgren

Xylem Inc.

Sundbyberg, Sweden

Kenya L. Goodson

Nspiregreen, LLC

Washington, DC

Xuefei Guo

Department of Chemistry

University of Cincinnati

Cincinnati, Ohio

Imen Haddaoui

Higher Institute of Agronomic

Sciences of Chatt Meriem

Tunis, Tunisia

Woo Hyoung Lee

Department of Civil, Environmental,

and Construction Engineering

University of Central Florida

Orlando, Florida

Aleksandra Jelic

Department of Biotechnology

University of Verona

Verona, Italy

Evina Katsou

Department of Biotechnology

University of Verona

Verona, Italy

Jan Kochany

Environmental Consultant

Mississauga, Ontario, Canada

Xiangmeng Ma

Department of Civil,

Environmental, and

Construction Engineering

University of Central Florida

Orlando, Florida

Olfa Mahjoub

National Research Institute for

Rural Engineering, Water, and

Forestry (INRGREF)

Tunis, Tunisia

x Contributors

Simos Malamis

Department of Biotechnology

University of Verona

Verona, Italy

Daniel Mamais

Department of Water Resources and

Environmental Engineering

School of Civil Engineering

National Technical University of

Athens

Athens, Greece

Robert Pitt

Department of Civil, Construction,

and Environmental Engineering

University of Alabama

Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Agnieszka Popenda

Department of Chemistry

Water and Wastewater Technology

Częstochowa University of

Technology

Częstochowa, Poland

Vincenzo Torretta

Università degli Studi dell’Insubria

Varese, Italy

Maria Włodarczyk-Makuła

Department of Chemistry

Water and Wastewater Technology

Częstochowa University of

Technology

Częstochowa, Poland

Daoli Zhao

Department of Chemistry

University of Cincinnati

Cincinnati, Ohio

xi

Acronyms

ATSDR U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry

BaP, B(α)P Benzo[a]pyrene, also known as benzo[α]pyrene

BOD5 5-day biochemical oxygen demand

BSA Bovine serum albumin

BTEX Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene

CAS Chemical Abstract Services

CASP Conventional activated sludge process

CBOD5 5-day carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand

CNT Carbon nanotube

COD Chemical oxygen demand

CT Coal tar

DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

DO Dissolved oxygen

dw, d.w. Dry weight

EC European Commission (EU’s executive body)

EEA European Environmental Agency

EEM Excitation-emission matrix

EF Emission factor

EFSA European Food Safety Authority

E.I. Equivalent inhabitant

ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

EPA See USEPA

EQS Environmental Quality Standards (European Union)

ERM Effect range median

EU European Union

EU-SCF European Union, Scientific Committee for Food

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

FATE Fate and Treatability Estimator (model)

FIS Fluoroimmunosensor

FOP Fiber optic probe

FS Final sludge

FWHM Full width at half maximum

GC Gas chromatography

GC-MS or GS/MS Gas chromatography with mass spectroscopy

GC/MS-MS Gas chromatography with tandem mass spectroscopy

GPC Gel permeation chromatography

HAP Hazardous air pollutant

HIV Human immunodeficiency virus

HMSO Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, UK

xii Acronyms

HMW High molecular weight

HOMO Highest occupied molecular orbital

HPLC High-performance liquid chromatography

HPLC-DAD High-performance liquid chromatography with diode￾array detection

HPLC-FI High-performance liquid chromatography with fluores￾cence detection

HRT Hydraulic retention time

I&I Infiltration and inflow

IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer

ICCD Intensified charge-coupled device

ISO International Organization for Standardization

JEFCA Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives

JRC-IRMM Joint Research Centre, Institute for Reference Materials

and Measurements (EC)

LETRSS Laser-excited time-resolved Shpol’skii spectroscopy

LLE Liquid-liquid extraction

LMW Low molecular weight

LOD Limit of detection

LOQ Limit of quantification

LUMO Lowest unoccupied molecular orbital

MBR Membrane bioreactor

MCL Maximum contaminant level

MCM Million cubic meters

MDL Method detection limit

MGD Million gallons per day

MGP Manufactured gas plant

MITI Ministry of International Trade and Industry (Japan)

MLSS Mixed liquor suspended solids

NF Nanofiltration

NH3-N Ammoniacal nitrogen

NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Eliminations System

(United States)

NWMP National Waste Minimization Program (USEPA)

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OLR Organic loading rate

PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

PANH Polycyclic aromatic nitrogen heterocycle

PAS Photoelectric aerosol sensor

PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl

PFE Pressurized fluid extraction

POP Persistent organic pollutant

ppb Parts per billion

ppt Parts per trillion

PrT Prethickening

Acronyms xiii

PS Primary sludge

PVC Polyvinyl chloride

PW Produced water

PWS Prince William Sound, Alaska

QCM Quartz crystal microbalance

RCV Rapid cyclic voltammetry

RIVM National Institute for Public Health and Environment

(Netherlands)

RO Reverse osmosis

RTF Room temperature fluorescence

SAM Self-assembled monolayer

SCE Saturated calomel electrode

SCF Sludge concentration factor

SERS Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

SFE Supercritical fluid extraction

SIM Selective ion method

sOUR Specific oxygen uptake rate

SPE Solid-phase extraction

SPNE Solid-phase nanoextraction

SPR Surface plasmon resonance

SRT Solids retention time

SS Secondary sludge

SWCNT Single-walled carbon nanotube

TCA Tricarboxylic acid

TKN Total Kjeldahl nitrogen

TLCR Total lifetime carcinogenic risk

TREEM Time-resolved excitation-emission matrix

TSS Total suspended solid

USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

UV Ultraviolet

UVF Ultraviolet fluorescence (spectroscopy)

UV-VIS Ultraviolet-visible absorption

VOC Volatile organic carbon

VSC Volatile sulfide compound

VSS Volatile suspended solid

WFD Water Framework Directive (EU)

WHO World Health Organization

WTM Wavelength time matrix

WWTP Wastewater treatment plant