Wastewater Treatment: Advanced Processes and Technologies

Wastewater

Treatment

Advanced Processes

and Technologies

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Wastewater

Treatment

Advanced Processes

and Technologies

edited by

D. G. Rao

R. Senthilkumar

J. Anthony Byrne

S. Feroz

Co-published by IWA Publishing, Alliance House, 12 Caxton Street, London SW1H 0QS, UK

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ISBN13: 978-178040-034-1

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Version Date: 20120501

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v

Contents

Preface..................................................................................................................... vii

Contributors.............................................................................................................xi

1. Introduction......................................................................................................1

D. G. Rao, R. Senthilkumar, J. A. Byrne, and S. Feroz

2. Solar Photo-Fenton as Advanced Oxidation Technology

for Water Reclamation.................................................................................. 11

Sixto Malato Rodríguez, Nikolaus Klamerth, Isabel Oller Alberola,

and Ana Zapata Sierra

3. Solar Photocatalytic Treatment of Wastewater........................................ 37

J. A. Byrne and P. Fernández-Ibáñez

4. Advanced Oxidation Processes: Basics and Applications..................... 61

Rakshit Ameta, Anil Kumar, P. B. Punjabi, and Suresh C. Ameta

5. Impinging-Jet Ozone Bubble Column Reactors.................................... 107

Mahad S. Baawain

6. Biological Treatment of Wastewaters: Recent Trends

and Advancements...................................................................................... 137

K. Vijayaraghavan

7. Removal of Heavy Metals by Seaweeds in Wastewater

Treatment................................................................................................163

R. Senthilkumar, M. Velan, and S. Feroz

8. Microbial Treatment of Heavy Metals, Oil, and Radioactive

Contamination in Wastewaters................................................................ 185

Sourish Karmakar, Arka Pravo Kundu, Kanika Kundu, and Subir Kundu

9. Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment in Tapered Fluidized

Bed Reactor................................................................................................... 211

R. Parthiban

10. Treatment of Effluent Waters in Food Processing Industries............. 239

D. G. Rao, N. Meyyappan, and S. Feroz

vi Contents

11. Removal of Lower-Molecular-Weight Substances from Water

and Wastewater: Challenges and Solutions........................................... 275

V. Jegatheesan, J. Virkutyte, L. Shu, J. Allen, Y. Wang, E. Searston,

Z. P. Xu, J. Naylor, S. Pinchon, C. Teil, D. Navaratna, and H. K. Shon

12. Treatment and Reuse Potential of Graywater from Urban

Households in Oman.................................................................................. 319

Mushtaque Ahmed, Abdullah Al-Buloshi, and Ahmed Al-Maskary

13. Anaerobic Fixed Bed Reactor for Treatment of Industrial

Wastewater....................................................................................................335

Joseph V. Thanikal

vii

Preface

The importance of wastewater treatment in the modern industrial world is

very high in view of the fact that more than 97%, dormant in polar regions,

of the available water is saline (in seas and oceans) and 2% of the freshwater

is unavailable for human consumption. Thus, very little quantity of water

is available for human consumption. The world population is increasing,

and the per capita water consumption is also increasing day by day, which

lays a heavy burden on science, technology, and engineering to meet the

challenges of water treatment and supply in the future. Economic and social

growth cannot be ensured without industrialization, which is in turn a cul￾prit in spoiling the available water resources due to the generation of large

quantities of wastewater. It is paradoxical but true. To add another dimen￾sion to the existing problem is the increased day-by-day legislative restric￾tions that are being imposed by various governments all over the world in

view of the safety and health concerns of the citizens. Urbanization with

overconcern for hygiene also generates huge quantities of wastewater that

is known as graywater. It comes from household kitchens, toilets, and res￾taurants. The graywater from kitchens and restaurants is not toxic but is not

suitable for human consumption. In the present complex scenario, the only

alternative is to treat the available wastewater to make it as clean as possible.

The treated water may not be exactly suitable for potable purpose, but can at

least be used for various other purposes, viz., recycling partly for industrial

purposes, steam generation, or gardening and agriculture.

The treatment of wastewater is complicated because of the heterogeneous

nature of the water streams coming from the various domestic and indus￾trial sources. The industrial sources are as diverse as drugs and pharma￾ceutics, pesticides, food processing, fermentation, vaccines manufacturing

nuclear processing, and metallurgical and animal processing industries. The

pollutants generated can be physical, chemical, and biological in nature, and

they can be toxic or nontoxic. Hence, the treatment methods are also varied

in nature in order to process the diverse effluent wastewaters coming from

various sources.

This book is an honest attempt to present important concepts, technolo￾gies, and issues in this direction by various experts in the field of wastewater

treatment. The treatment methods cover various process industries and uti￾lize various technologies for the purpose. Chapters 2–4 deal with advanced

oxidation processes including processes based on Fenton and photo-Fenton,

ozonolysis, photocatalysis, and sonolysis. Various types of reactors used in

wastewater treatment are dealt with in Chapters 5, 9, and 13. Microbial treat￾ment methods, in general, for wastewater treatment are described in Chapter 6,

whereas those used in various process industries are covered in Chapter 8.

viii Preface

Effluent treatment methods, usually practiced in food processing industries,

are comprehensively dealt with in Chapter 10. Removal of low-molecular￾weight substances from wastewater is a challenging task, and hence special

methods for their removal are needed, which are all described in Chapter 11.

Seaweeds are good adsorbents and may be applied in wastewater treatment

for the removal of toxic substances (Chapter 7). The treatment of graywater

needs a special attention in view of its increasing magnitude. Chapter 12

describes such treatment methods with a case study of the Muscat munici￾pality. A special concept of central effluent treatment plants (CETPs) is gain￾ing prominence in the treatment and release of wastewater from small-scale

processing units into municipal water lines, after meeting the stringent leg￾islative requirements. It is dealt with in the introductory chapter (Chapter 1).

All efforts have been made by the editors and authors to judiciously blend

most of the treatment processes and technologies in one single book in

order to make the diverse subject matter as comprehensible as possible. It

is, indeed, difficult to make it concise with the whole gamut of advanced

processes and technologies in a single book of this nature; hence, enthu￾siastic readers are advised to consult the original references for complete

understanding of any process or technology. This book is ideally suited for

researchers and professionals working in the area of wastewater treatment.

Each chapter is specific in its own way and, hence, may cater to the require￾ments of professionals interested in that area. The bibliography given at the

end of each chapter would act as a guide for comprehensive information in

that particular area. Hence, most of the chapters end with a comprehensive

list of literature references.

At the very outset, we would like to thank all our contributing authors,

who have done an excellent job in drafting and delivering the chapters.

The success of this publication is largely due to them. We would also like to

extend our sincere thanks to the staff of the editorial and publication depart￾ment of CRC Press, who have been very helpful and cooperative throughout

the preparation of this material and have been largely responsible for the

book in its present form. We thank all the authors, publishers, and industries

whose works have been referred to and who have extended the copyright

permissions to utilize their published information in this book in some form

or the other. We would like to extend our sincere thanks to the executives

and management of Caledonian College of Engineering, Muscat (Sultanate

of Oman), and to the staff of the University of Ulster (United Kingdom), for

their encouragement and support for this work. We also thank our families,

who had largely extended their moral support during the last 2 years while

preparing (editing) this book.

This publication is a sincere effort made by us to put in a nutshell the vast

subject matter of wastewater treatment, which is so vital in the twenty-first

century. We are aware of the fact that this book may not be holistic in its

approach; but still we feel we are richly rewarded if the publication meets

at least partly the requirements of researchers, professionals, and young

Preface ix

students working in the area of wastewater treatment. Since this book is an

edited version of the works of so many authors in the field, we are afraid that

there may be some mistakes or omissions. We request the readers to kindly

bring them to the notice of the editors (e-mail addresses enclosed) by contact￾ing us with their views and positive criticisms for the overall improvement

of the book.

D. G. Rao

R. Senthilkumar

J. Anthony Byrne

S. Feroz

xi

Mushtaque Ahmed

College of Agricultural and Marine

Sciences

Sultan Qaboos University

Al-Khod, Muscat,

Sultanate of Oman

Abdullah Al-Buloshi

College of Agricultural and Marine

Sciences

Sultan Qaboos University

Al-Khod, Muscat,

Sultanate of Oman

Ahmed Al-Maskary

College of Agricultural and Marine

Sciences

Sultan Qaboos University

Al-Khod, Muscat,

Sultanate of Oman

Isabel Oller Alberola

Plataforma Solar de Almería

Carretera Senés

Tabernas, Spain

J. Allen

School of Engineering

Deakin University

Geelong, Australia

Rakshit Ameta

Department of Pure and Applied

Chemistry

University of Kota

Kota, India

Suresh C. Ameta

Department of Chemistry

M.L. Sukhadia University

Udaipur, India

Mahad S. Baawain

Department of Civil and

Architectural Engineering

Sultan Qaboos University

Al-Khod, Muscat,

Sultanate of Oman

J. A. Byrne

Nanotechnology and Integrated

BioEngineering Centre

University of Ulster

Northern Ireland, UK

P. Fernández-Ibáñez

Plataforma Solar de Almería

Carretera Senés

Tabernas, Spain

S. Feroz

Caledonian College of Engineering

Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

V. Jegatheesan

School of Engineering

Deakin University

Geelong, Australia

and

School of Engineering and Physical

Sciences

James Cook University

Townsville, Australia

Contributors

xii Contributors

Sourish Karmakar

School of Biochemical Engineering

Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi, India

Nikolaus Klamerth

Plataforma Solar de Almería

Carretera Senés

Tabernas, Spain

Anil Kumar

Department of Chemistry

M.P. Government P.G. College

Chittorgarh, India

Arka Pravo Kundu

Department of Mining Engineering

Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi, India

Kanika Kundu

Chemistry Section

Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi, India

Subir Kundu

School of Biochemical Engineering

Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi, India

N. Meyyappan

Sri Venkateswara College of

Engineering

Sriperumbudur, Chennai, India

D. Navaratna

School of Engineering

Deakin University

Geelong, Australia

and

School of Engineering and Physical

Sciences

James Cook University

Townsville, Australia

J. Naylor

School of Engineering

Deakin University

Geelong, Australia

R. Parthiban

Sri Venkateswara College of

Engineering

Sriperumbudur, Chennai, India

S. Pinchon

School of Engineering

Deakin University

Geelong, Australia

P. B. Punjabi

Department of Chemistry

M.L. Sukhadia University

Udaipur, India

D. G. Rao

Caledonian College of Engineering

Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Sixto Malato Rodríguez

Plataforma Solar de Almería

Carretera Senés

Tabernas, Spain

E. Searston

School of Engineering

Deakin University

Geelong, Australia

R. Senthilkumar

Caledonian College of Engineering

Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

H. K. Shon

Faculty of Engineering

University of Technology Sydney

Broadway, Australia

Contributors xiii

L. Shu

School of Engineering

Deakin University

Geelong, Australia

Ana Zapata Sierra

Plataforma Solar de Almería

Carretera Senés

Tabernas, Spain

C. Teil

School of Engineering

Deakin University

Geelong, Australia

Joseph V. Thanikal

Head, Built and Natural

Environment department

Caledonian College of Engineering

Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

M. Velan

Department of Chemical

Engineering

Anna University

Chennai, India

K. Vijayaraghavan

Institute for Water and River Basin

Management

Department of Aquatic

Environmental Engineering

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

Karlsruhe, Germany

and

Singapore-Delft Water Alliance

National University of Singapore

Singapore

J. Virkutyte

Pegasus Technical Services Inc.

Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

Y. Wang

School of Engineering

Deakin University

Geelong, Australia

Z. P. Xu

ARC Centre of Excellence for

Functional Nanomaterials

Australian Institute for

BioEngineering and

Nanotechnology

The University of Queensland

Brisbane, Australia

1

1

Introduction

D. G. Rao, R. Senthilkumar, J. A. Byrne, and S. Feroz

One of the greatest challenges of the twenty-first century would be to have

an incessant supply of safe drinking water and clean air to breathe for the

millions of living things all over the world. The major concern in this is not

the depletion of air and water but the indiscriminate damage that is being

done to them under the guise of industrial development. The day is not far

off when they will become rare commodities. The problem being addressed

in this book is concerned with the wastewater treatment.

The worldwide concern for the depletion of global water sources is ris￾ing day by day. It is more than just the depletion of sources; with the ever￾increasing population and growing economy, demands for water are also

continuously growing. Water sources, however, are not as abundant as

they seem at first, since only in a very limited number of situations can

available water be used without any treatment. A casual observation of the

world map would suggest that the supply of water is endless since it covers

over 80% of the earth’s surface. Unfortunately, however, we cannot use it

directly since 97% is in the salty seas and oceans, 2% is tied up in the polar

ice caps, and most of the remainder is beneath the earth’s surface. When a

huge amount of water is required for different industrial processes, only

a small fraction of the same is incorporated into their products and lost

by evaporation; the rest finds its way into the water courses as wastewa￾ter. Wastewaters are those waters that emanate from (i) domestic sources,

(ii) restaurants and establishments, and (iii) factories and industries. Of

them, industries are the main polluters of natural bodies of water. Newer

technologies lead to newer and more toxic wastes; these wastes take lon￾ger periods of time for decomposition, and most of the time, toxic wastes

are deeply buried in the ocean or land. But this is far from a permanent

solution as it degrades the earth. Newer technologies are being researched

every day, but much less development has occurred in the field of waste

treatment. The world depends on earth for disposal, but what will happen

to earth. Little thought has been given to this. Recently, the world saw a

major disaster in the Mexican Gulf, where BP (M/s British Petroleum) lost

an oil well, creating an oil slick of millions of gallons and deeply endan￾gering marine and human life nearby.