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Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) handbook
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)
handbook
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials:
Number 30
Waste electrical
and electronic
equipment (WEEE)
handbook
Edited by
Vannessa Goodship and Ab Stevels
Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited,
80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK
www.woodheadpublishing.com
www.woodheadpublishingonline.com
Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia,
PA 19102-3406, USA
Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road,
Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India
www.woodheadpublishingindia.com
First published 2012, Woodhead Publishing Limited
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012, except Chapters 1, 6 and 20 which are © The
United Nations University Institute for Sustainability and Peace, and the figures in Chapter
28 which are © Siemens.
The authors have asserted their moral rights.
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2012942834
ISBN 978-0-85709-089-8 (print)
ISBN 978-0-85709-633-3 (online)
ISSN 2050-1501 Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials (print)
ISSN 2050-151X Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials (online)
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
Contributor contact details xv
Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials xxi
Preface xxv
Part I Legislation and initiatives to manage WEEE 1
1 Global e-waste initiatives 3
R. Kuehr, United Nations University
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Problems associated with e-waste 4
1.3 Global e-waste management initiatives 6
1.4 Synergizing e-waste initiatives 13
1.5 Future trends 14
1.6 Sources of further information and advice 15
1.7 References 15
2 EU legislation relating to electronic waste: the
WEEE and RoHS directives and the REACH
regulations 17
R. Stewart, Consultant, UK
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 The EU and the environment 21
2.3 The Waste Framework Directive 25
2.4 The WEEE Directive 26
2.5 The WEEE Directive in operation 32
2.6 The recast of the WEEE Directive 33
2.7 Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous
substances in electrical and electronic equipment (RoHS) 38
2.8 The Commission’s proposal on a recast RoHS 41
2.9 Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and restriction of
Chemicals (REACH) Directive 44
Contents
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
vi Contents
2.10 Review of REACH 48
2.11 Summary 49
2.12 References 49
3 The present recast of the WEEE Directive 53
A. L. N. Stevels, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Review studies proposing options for the recast of the
WEEE Directive 55
3.3 The current proposals for the recast of WEEE 62
3.4 Further developments (July–September 2011) 64
3.5 Conclusions 65
3.6 References 65
4 The WEEE Forum and the WEEELABEX project 66
P. Leroy, WEEE Forum aisbl, Belgium
4.1 Introduction 66
4.2 What is the WEEE Forum? 67
4.3 Context of WEEELABEX 68
4.4 WEEELABEX phase I: standards 73
4.5 WEEELABEX phase II: conformity verification 76
4.6 Conclusions 77
4.7 References 77
5 Conformity assessment of WEEE take-back
schemes: the case of Switzerland 78
H. W. Böni, Empa, Switzerland
5.1 Introduction 78
5.2 Approach of the conformity assessment 81
5.3 Scope and elements of the conformity assessment 82
5.4 Future trends 88
5.5 Conclusions 90
5.6 References 91
6 Eco-efficiency evaluation of WEEE take-back
systems 93
J. Huisman, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands and
United Nations University
6.1 Introduction 93
6.2 How much WEEE is out there? 94
6.3 How do WEEE quantify and prioritise environmental
impacts? 105
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Contents vii
6.4 How much do WEEE have to pay? 110
6.5 How do WEEE benefit from impact assessment in policy
development? 114
6.6 Conclusions 117
6.7 References 118
Part II Technologies for refurbishment, treatment and
recycling of waste electronics 121
7 The materials of WEEE 123
M. Goosey, Loughborough University, UK
7.1 The material content of WEEE 123
7.2 Materials and their recovery and recycling technologies 126
7.3 The transition from cathode ray tube (CRT) to liquid
crystal display (LCD) screens and its implications for
materials recycling 129
7.4 The loss of scarce elements 132
7.5 Novel materials recovery approaches 133
7.6 New materials and their implications 137
7.7 Summary and conclusions 140
7.8 Sources of further information and advice 140
7.9 References 142
8 Refurbishment and reuse of WEEE 145
W. L. Ijomah, University of Strathclyde, UK, and M. Danis, Fujitsu
Technology Solutions, UK
8.1 Need for WEEE refurbishment and reuse 145
8.2 Reuse processes and their role in sustainable
manufacturing 146
8.3 Industry sector specific example: refurbishment of
computers 150
8.4 Role of the third sector 152
8.5 Issues in WEEE refurbishment and reuse 153
8.6 Future trends 157
8.7 Summary of WEEE reuse and refurbishment 160
8.8 References 161
9 Shredding, sorting and recovery of metals from
WEEE: linking design to resource efficiency 163
A. van Schaik, MARAS – Material Recycling and Sustainability,
The Netherlands, and M. A. Reuter, Outotec Oyj, Finland
9.1 Introduction 163
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
viii Contents
9.2 Theory of recycling 169
9.3 Product design, shredding and liberation of waste products 176
9.4 Automated and manual sorting of WEEE products 182
9.5 Metallurgical processing 188
9.6 (Dynamic) modelling recycling systems performance 198
9.7 Conclusions 207
9.8 References 210
10 Mechanical methods of recycling plastics from WEEE 212
K. Makenji and M. Savage, University of Warwick, UK
10.1 Introduction 212
10.2 Introduction to waste collection and sorting 216
10.3 Methods of sorting small particle size polymer waste 223
10.4 Conversion of WEEE to a reusable material 228
10.5 Effectiveness of the WEEE legislation to date 231
10.6 Remanufacturing using WEEE polymers 233
10.7 Future trends 234
10.8 Sources of further information and advice 235
10.9 References 235
11 Pyrolysis of WEEE plastics 239
M. P. Luda, University of Turin, Italy
11.1 Introduction 239
11.2 Pyrolysis processes and characterization of the pyrolysis
fractions 240
11.3 Pyrolysis of printed circuit boards (PCBs) 248
11.4 Pyrolysis of plastics 249
11.5 Environmental concerns about the products of pyrolysis of
WEEE 253
11.6 Future trends 257
11.7 References 260
12 Chemical or feedstock recycling of WEEE products 264
A. Tukker, TNO, The Netherlands and Norwegian University of
Science and Technology, Norway
12.1 Introduction 264
12.2 Characteristics of WEEE plastics 266
12.3 European feedstock recycling initiatives since the 1990s 267
12.4 Conclusions and future trends 281
12.5 References 282
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
Contents ix
Part III Electronic products that present particular
challenges for recyclers 285
13 Recycling printed circuit boards 287
J. Li and X. Zeng, Tsinghua University, China
13.1 Introduction 287
13.2 Materials 291
13.3 Flame retardants 294
13.4 Costs and benefits of recycling printed circuit boards
(PCBs) 298
13.5 Challenges and future trends 306
13.6 References 310
14 Recycling liquid crystal displays 312
K. S. Williams and T. McDonnell, University of Central
Lancashire, UK
14.1 Introduction 312
14.2 Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) 313
14.3 Recycling processes for liquid crystal displays (LCDs) 319
14.4 Hazardous materials in liquid crystal displays (LCDs) 326
14.5 Recovery of valuable materials 330
14.6 Re-use of liquid crystal display (LCD) equipment and
components 331
14.7 Future trends 332
14.8 Sources of further information and advice 333
14.9 References 334
15 Recycling cooling and freezing appliances 339
C. Keri, Reclay Österreich GmbH, Austria
15.1 Introduction 339
15.2 Challenges relating to WEEE refrigerators and freezers 342
15.3 Requirements for de-gassing processes 343
15.4 Emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 344
15.5 Future trends 346
15.6 Techniques for separation of fridge plastics 348
15.7 Sources of further information and advice 350
15.8 Conclusions 350
15.9 References 351
16 End-of-life options for printed electronics 352
M. Keskinen, Tampere University of Technology, Finland
16.1 Introduction 352
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
x Contents
16.2 Printed electronics 353
16.3 End-of-life options and their challenges 356
16.4 Consideration of EU legislation 361
16.5 Future trends 362
16.6 Sources of further information and advice 363
16.7 References 363
17 Recycling batteries 365
D. C. R. Espinosa, University of São Paulo, Brazil, and M. B. Mansur,
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil
17.1 Introduction 365
17.2 Main directives worldwide for spent batteries 366
17.3 Methods for the recovery of metals from spent batteries 369
17.4 Future trends 382
17.5 References 383
Part IV Sustainable design of electronics and supply
chains 385
18 ErP – the European directive on ecodesign 387
N. F. Nissen, Fraunhofer IZM, Germany
18.1 Introduction 387
18.2 Trends leading to ecodesign regulation 387
18.3 Introducing the ErP Directive 389
18.4 Examining the Framework Directive concept 391
18.5 Comparing ErP and WEEE approaches 393
18.6 Status of ErP implementation and coverage of end-of-life
(EoL) aspects 397
18.7 Conclusion 402
18.8 References 403
19 Sustainable electronic product design 405
U. Tischner, ec[o]ncept, Germany; and M. Hora, e-hoch-3, Germany
19.1 Introduction 405
19.2 Drivers for sustainability and ecodesign 409
19.3 How to do design for sustainability (DfS) 413
19.4 Sustainable materials and manufacturing processes 423
19.5 Examples of sustainable electronic product design 428
19.6 Future trends 433
19.7 Sources of further information and advice 438
19.8 References 439
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
Contents xi
20 Reducing hazardous substances in electronics 442
O. Deubzer, United Nations University and Fraunhofer IZM,
Germany
20.1 Hazardous substances and their functions in electrical and
electronic equipment (EEE) 442
20.2 Legislative bans of hazardous substances in EEE: the RoHS
Directive 443
20.3 Environmental, technological and economic impacts of the
RoHS substance restrictions 445
20.4 Differentiated approaches on the use and ban of hazardous
substances 462
20.5 References 463
20.6 Appendix: abbreviations 465
21 Examining subsidy impacts on recycled WEEE material
flows 466
I-H. Hong, National Taiwan University, Taiwan, J. C. Ammons and
M. J. Realff, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA
21.1 Introduction 466
21.2 A multi-tiered decentralized reverse production system
(RPS) problem 468
21.3 Insights from decentralized RPS case study 472
21.4 Conclusions and discussions 485
21.5 Acknowledgments 487
21.6 References 487
Part V National and regional WEEE management schemes 491
22 WEEE management in Europe: learning from best
practice 493
E. Román, Narvik University College, Norway
22.1 Introduction 493
22.2 The waste strategy within the EU 494
22.3 The WEEE Directive and the RoHS framework 498
22.4 Extended producer responsibility (EPR) and polluter pays
principles and WEEE management 503
22.5 National waste recovery schemes: case studies 507
22.6 Summing up and discussion 518
22.7 Conclusions and recommendations 521
22.8 Acknowledgements 522
22.9 References 522
22.10 Appendix: abbreviations 524
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
xii Contents
23 WEEE management in China 526
G-M. Li, Tongji University, China
23.1 Introduction 526
23.2 Infrastructure: collecting, processing, recycling facilities 527
23.3 Informal and formal recycling 528
23.4 Contamination from landfill and incineration 533
23.5 Environmental impacts 536
23.6 Management of hazardous materials 539
23.7 Knowledge centers of excellence 542
23.8 Future trends 544
23.9 Sources of further information and advice 545
23.10 Acknowledgements 545
23.11 References 546
24 WEEE management in the USA and India: research
and education for a responsible approach to managing
WEEE 550
S. Mani, Centre for Environment Education, India
24.1 Introduction 550
24.2 Local situational analysis of health and safety monitoring
practices in WEEE recycling facilities in the US 559
24.3 What are the issues for the WEEE recyclers? 564
24.4 What do recycling workers expect from this job? 564
24.5 What were the observations at the ECS Refining WEEE
treatment site? 564
24.6 Discussion and implications 569
24.7 Recommendations to ECS Refining and similar facilities in
the US and India for tackling WEEE recycling issues 569
24.8 Conclusions 570
24.9 Sources of further information and advice 571
24.10 Acknowledgements 571
24.11 References 571
24.12 Appendix: interview question list 573
25 WEEE management in Japan 576
F. Yoshida, Hokkaido University, Japan and H. Yoshida, Sapporo
University, Japan
25.1 Introduction 576
25.2 Japan’s home appliance recycling system: purpose and
background 577
25.3 The collection rate 578
25.4 Cost and recycling quality 580
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
Contents xiii
25.5 Export problems 583
25.6 Economic analysis for urban mining 585
25.7 Conclusions 588
25.8 References 589
26 WEEE management in Africa 591
M. Schluep, Empa, Switzerland
26.1 Introduction 591
26.2 Volumes of WEEE imported and generated in African
countries 592
26.3 Impacts of current WEEE recycling practices 596
26.4 WEEE policy and legislation 601
26.5 Conclusions 606
26.6 References 608
Part VI Corporate WEEE management strategies 611
27 Hewlett-Packard’s WEEE management strategy 613
K. Hieronymi, Hewlett-Packard, Germany
27.1 Environmental business management at Hewlett Packard
(HP) 613
27.2 HP e-waste management in practice: HP end-of-life
product return and recycling 622
27.3 Future trends 631
27.4 Sources of further information and advice 635
27.5 Conclusions 635
27.6 References 636
28 Siemens’ WEEE management strategy 638
W. Bloch, M. Plumeyer and H. Würl, Siemens AG, Germany
28.1 Introduction: WEEE as an important element of the
overall environmental protection strategy 638
28.2 Siemens’ environmental business management 639
28.3 Significance of WEEE aspects within the product
life-cycle management (PLM) process 645
28.4 Healthcare products as an example of WEEE
management 651
28.5 Future trends 659
28.6 Sources of further information and advice 661
28.7 References 662
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
xiv Contents
29 The history of take-back and treatment of WEEE at
the Philips Consumer Lifestyle division 664
A. L. N. Stevels, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
29.1 Introduction 664
29.2 The period 1990–1998 665
29.3 Implementation of a take-back and treatment system in The
Netherlands (1997–2000) 671
29.4 The WEEE Directive (2000–2008) 677
29.5 Summary and conclusions 680
29.6 References 681
30 Creating a corporate environmental strategy
including WEEE take-back and treatment 683
A. L. N. Stevels, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
30.1 Position of take-back and treatment in an environmental
strategy 683
30.2 Corporate environmental strategy 685
30.3 Product characteristics, take-back and treatment 689
30.4 WEEE implementation, materials recycling and corporate
environmental strategy 694
30.5 Summary and conclusions 699
30.6 References 700
Index 701