Waste management practices: municipal, hazardous, and industrial

I hu Vien D H k T O i-T N

KNV. 14000790

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WASTE MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES

MunicipalHazardous, and Industrial

John Pichtel

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Taylor &. Francis

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Preface

When written in Chinese, the word 'crisis ’ is composed of two characters —

one represents danger and one represents opportunity.

J o h n F. K en n ed y

Even if you 're on the right track, you '11 get run over if you just sit there.

W ill R ogers

In his Laws o f Ecology. Dr. Barry Commoner postulated that “In nature there is no waste; every￾thing is connected to everything else; everything must go someplace; and there is no such thing as

a free lunch.” These laws have been faithfully followed for eons by all biota on the planet; except

for humans. This has become particularly evident over the past few centuries. Worldwide, human

population growth continues to increase exponentially. The quantities of nonrenewable natural

resources extracted and used, and the consequent degrees of air, water, and soil pollution also fol￾low an upward trend. The “garbage crisis,” as it became known in the late 1980s, will not go away;

the number of sanitary landfills in the United States continues to decline rapidly, and the amount of

waste generated per capita has only recently begun to stabilize. Demands for convenient and dis￾posable consumer products have reached unprecedented levels. Humans are producing numerous

substances that nature simply does not possess the capability to decompose. Payment for our

“lunch” is indeed due.

In the United States, regulators, scientists, policy makers, and the general public have belatedly

recognized that the context in which we have managed our wastes, whether household, industrial,

commercial, or hazardous, has been inadequate if not outright flawed. In the 1970s, disasters

including Love Canal (NY), Times Beach (MO), and Valley of the Drums (KY) underscored the

lack of a comprehensive strategy for hazardous waste management. In the 1980s, the Islip (NY)

“Garbage Barge” made headlines along with the washing of medical waste on to New Jersey, New

York and California beaches. The Khian Sea, transporting incinerator ash from Philadelphia, expe￾rienced a lengthy and frustrating odyssey in hopes of finding a home for its toxic cargo. The Fresh

Kills landfill, located in Staten Island, New York, is now the world’s largest landfill, constructed

without a liner on porous sandy soils. It has become apparent that our earlier mindset on manage￾ment and disposal of wastes was neither adequately serving public health nor protecting the

environment.

In response to the above and similar events, federal and state legislation has been enacted

addressing the proper storage, collection, transportation, processing, treatment, recovery, and dis￾posal of wastes from many sources. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) estab￾lished a comprehensive framework for the overall management of existing and future hazardous

waste generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal activities. The Act also called for

the more effective management of both hazardous and nonhazardous wastes, by way of reduction,

reuse, and recycling. Amendments to RCRA now cover the management of used oil. industrial

waste, and other residues that do not fit conveniently into either category.

There is a need for well-trained scientists, regulatory personnel, and policy makers to appreci￾ate and integrate the technical and regulatory complexities of waste management. The public must

make well-informed decisions concerning the allocation of resources toward future management

efforts. They must accept the consequences of their lifestyle choices on local and large-scale

environments. Complacency has brought us to where we are today; we now need comprehensive

knowledge combined with committed action to establish a new framework in managing wastes.

There are few references which collectively address the management of the above listed wastes

although the engineer, scientist, or regulatory person may ultimately be responsible for the proper

disposition of one or more types. This book is intended to serve as a comprehensive manual for the

identification and management of a wide range of wastes ranging from those that are merely a nui￾sance to extremely hazardous. This is an introductory manual for waste management as mandated

by the RCRA and related statutes, with an emphasis on basic environmental science and related

technical fields.

The first part of this book (Part I) provides an overview of the historical and regulatory devel￾opment of waste management. The second part (Part II) delineates the management of municipal

solid wastes, i.e., those we encounter on a daily basis. Both conventional (e.g., sanitary landfill, aer￾obic composting) and innovative (bioreactor landfill, high-solids anaerobic digestion) technologies

are discussed. The third part (Part III) addresses hazardous wastes and their management, from the

perspectives of identification, transportation, and requirements for generators and for treatment,

storage, and disposal facilities. Disposition via incineration, chemical treatment, and land disposal

is also presented. The final part (Part IV) is devoted to special categories of waste that cannot find

a regulatory “home” under either RCRA Subtitle D (Solid Wastes) or Subtitle C (Hazardous

Wastes). These include used motor oil, medical waste, and electronics waste, among others.

In addition to end-of-chapter problems provided in all chapters to this book, Chapters 4

(Characterization of Solid Waste), 8 (Composting MSW), 9 (Incineration of MSW) and 10 (The

Sanitary Landfill) contain exercises using data from field situations. Data are supplied in Microsoft

Excel format. The student is to analyze the data, answer the questions and provide conclusions. The

exercises and data can be accessed on the Web by going to: www.crcpress.com/e_products/

downloads/download.asp? cat_no=3525

Regardless of how passionately some Americans may adhere to the “reduce, reuse, and

recycle” mantra, wastes of varying toxicity and mobility in the biosphere will continue to be pro￾duced in incomprehensible quantities. It is therefore critical that Americans become aware of the

hazards and potential benefits of wastes in order to manage them in the most appropriate fashion.

Author's Biography

John Pichtel is a Professor of Natural Resources and Environmental Management at Ball State

University in Muncie, Indiana, where he has been on the faculty since 1987. He received the Ph.D.

degree in Environmental Science from Ohio State University, the M.S. degree in Soil Chemistry/

Agronomy from Ohio State University, and the B.S. degree in Natural Resources Management from

Rutgers University. His primary research and professional activities have been in management of

hazardous and municipal wastes, remediation of contaminated sites, reclamation of mined lands,

and environmental chemistry. He teaches courses in management of solid and hazardous wastes,

environmental site assessment, site remediation, and emergency response to hazmat incidents.

Dr. Pichtel is a Certified Hazardous Materials Manager and a Certified Professional Soils

Specialist. Dr. Pichtel holds memberships in the Institute o f Hazardous Materials Managers, Sigma

Xi Scientific Society, the American Society of Agronomy, and the Indiana Academy of Science. He

was selected as a Fulbright Scholar in 1999.

In addition to Waste Management Practices, Dr. Pichtel has written one book on cleanup of con￾taminated sites (Site Remediation Technologies), and has been the author or co-author of approxi￾mately 30 research articles. He has served as a consultant in hazardous waste management projects

and has conducted environmental assessments and remediation research in the United States, the

United Kingdom, Finland, and Poland.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to acknowledge Matt Lamoreaux, Suzanne Lassandro, and Mike M asiello of

CRC Press who have been instrumental in preparing this work for publication. Their assistance and

professionalism have helped to make this book a rewarding experience. Thanks also to the techni￾cal editors at Macmillan India Limited for their fine work in editing the manuscript.

I am indebted to Mr. Brian Miller. Ms. Kendra Becher and Mr. Grant Daily for preparing the

figures in this text.

Thanks to those loved ones who provided their unfailing support and encouragement through￾out the course of this project: Rose and Ed Gonzalez; Theresa, Leah and Yozef Pichtel; and my

respected colleagues Paul Weller and Joseph Timko.

Finally, special thanks to my students: your desire to understand the underlying mechanisms,

trends, and other concepts of environmental science provided me with the incentive to pursue this

work.

Table of Contents

Part I

Historical and Regulatory Development................................................................................................. 1

Chapter 1

Introduction..............................................................................................................................................................3

1.1 Definition of a Solid W aste.......................................................................................................................5

1.2 Categories of W astes.................................................................................................................................. 6

1.2.1 Municipal Solid W aste.................................................................................................................. 6

1.2.2 Hazardous W aste............................................................................................................................. 8

1.2.3 Industrial W aste.......:....................................................................................................................... 8

1.2.4 Medical W aste..................................................................................................................................9

1.2.5 Universal W aste............................................................................................................................... 9

1.2.6 Construction and Demolition D ebris....................................................................................... 10

1.2.7 Radioactive Waste..........................................................................................................................10

1.2.8 Mining W aste...................................................................................................................................11

1.2.9 Agricultural W aste.........................................................................................................................12

1.3 Generation o f M S W ..................................................................................................................................13

1.4 Solid Waste M anagem ent.........................................................................................................................13

1.4.1 Source R eduction..........................................................................................................................16

1.4.2 Recycling......................................................................................................................................... 17

1.4.3 Incineration......................................................................................................................................17

1.4.4 Land D isposal.................................................................................................................................17

1.4.5 Goals at the Federal Level...........................................................................................................18

R eferences.............................................................................................................................................................. 18

Suggested Readings and Web Sites.................................................................................................................. 19

Q uestions................................................................................................................................................................ 19

Chapter 2

A Brief History of Waste M anagement........................................................................................................... 21

2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 21

2.2 Earliest C ivilizations.................................................................................................................................21

2.3 G reece...........................................................................................................................................................22

2.4 R o m e............................................................................................................................................................22

2.5 E urope..........................................................................................................................................................23

2.6 United S tates.............................................................................................................................................. 28

2.7 Recent Waste Management Initiatives...................................................................................................36

2.8 Solid Waste Incineration and other Thermal Processes...................................................................38

2.9 Land Disposal and the Sanitary L andfill............................................................................................. 42

2.10 Recycling/Reuse........................................................................................................................................44

References..............................................................................................................................................................45

Q uestions................................................................................................................................................................46

C h ap ter 3

Regulatory Development................................................................................................................................ 47

3.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................47

3.2 Significant U.S. Legislation..................................................................................................................47

3.2.1 The Solid Waste Disposal A ct.................................................................................................47

3.2.2 The Resource Recovery A ct.................................................................................................... 48

3.2.3 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act..................................................................... 48

3.2.4 Solid Waste Management under RCRA................................................................................ 48

3.2.5 Regulation of Hazardous Waste under RC RA ..................................................................... 49

3.2.6 Underground Storage Tank Management...............................................................................51

3.2.7 Amendments to RCRA..............................................................................................................51

3.2.7.1 The 1980 Amendments............................................................................................51

3.2.7.2 The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and

Liability Act of 1980................................................................................................ 51

3.2.7.3 The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984................................... 52

3.2.7.4 The Medical Waste Tracking A c t......................................................................... 52

3.2.7.5 The Federal Facility Compliance A ct...................................................................53

3.2.7.6 The 1996 Amendments............................................................................................ 53

3.3 Other Recent Laws Affecting MSW Management...........................................................................54

3.3.1 The Public Utility Regulation and Policy Act of 1978...................................................... 54

3.3.2 Sanitary Food Transportation A c t.......................................................................................... 54

3.3.3 Clean Air A ct..............................................................................................................................54

3.3.4 Pollution Prevention Act........................................................................................................... 54

3.3.5 Indian Lands Open Dump Cleanup A ct................................................................................ 55

3.3.6 Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management A ct.................................. 55

3.4 Relationship of RCRA with other Environmental Statutes............................................................ 55

3.5 Laws, Regulations and other Actions at the Federal Level............................................................ 56

3.5.1 The Lawmaking Process..........................................................................................................56

3.5.2 Regulations..................................................................................................................................57

3.5.3 Guidance and Policy..................................................................................................................58

3.5.4 Public Involvement in RCRA.................................................................................................. 59

References......................................................................................................................................................... 59

Suggested R eadings........................................................................................................................................59

Questions........................................................................................................................................................... 60

P art II

M unicipal Solid W astes................................................................................................................................ 61

C hapter 4

Characterization of Solid Waste....................................................................................................................63

4.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................63

4.2 Sampling Protocols for M SW .............................................................................................................. 63

4.2.1 Direct Sampling..........................................................................................................................63

4.2.2 Material Flows............................................................................................................................64

4.2.3 Surveys........................................................................................................................................64

4.2.4 Multipliers for Projecting Waste Quantities......................................................................... 64

4.3 Variability Affecting Waste Sampling.................................................................................................66

4.3.1 Seasonal.......................................................................................................................................66

4.3.2 Regional....................................................................................................................................... 67

4.3.3 Household....................................................................................................................................67

4.3.4 National Economy.....................................................................................................................68

4 .4 Common Components in Municipal Solid W aste...............................................................................68

4.4.1 Paper Products...........................................................................................................................68

4.4.2 G lass............................................................................................................................................68

4.4.3 Aluminum................................................................................................................................... 71

4.4.4 Ferrous M etals........................................................................................................................... 71

4.4.5 Other Nonferrous M etals......................................................................................................... 71

4.4.6 Plastics......................................................................................................................................... 71

4.4.7 Rubber and Leather.................................................................................................................. 72

4.4.8 Textiles........................................................................................................................................ 72

4.4.9 Food Wastes................................................................................................................................73

4.4.10 Yard Waste..................................................................................................................................74

4.4.11 Household Hazardous W astes................................................................................................74

4.4.11.1 Toxic M etals..........................................................................................................76

4.4.11.2 Organic Compounds............................................................................................ 76

4.5 Chemical Properties of M SW ...............................................................................................................78

4.5.1 Ultimate Analysis of Solid Waste C om ponents................................................................. 80

4.5.2 Proximate Analysis of M SW .................................................................................................. 82

4.5.3 Energy Content of M SW .........................................................................................................84

4.5.4 Fusion Point of A sh..................................................................................................................87

4.5.5 Content of Nutrients and other Substrates.......................................................................... 88

4.5.6 Carbohydrates............................................................................................................................ 89

4.5.7 Crude Fibers.............................................................................................................................. 90

4.5.8 Proteins....................................................................................................................................... 90

4.5.9 Lipids...........................................................................................................................................90

4.5.10 Biodegradability of MSW Fractions.....................................................................................90

4.6 Physical Properties of M SW .................................................................................................................92

4.6.1 Density.........................................................................................................................................92

4.6.2 Moisture Content.......................................................................................................................95

4.6.3 Particle Size Distribution.........................................................................................................96

4.6.4 Field Capacity............................................................................................................................ 98

4.6.5 Hydraulic Conductivity of Compacted Waste.....................................................................98

References.......................................................................................................................................................... 99

Suggested Readings and Web Sites............................................................................................................... 100

Questions...........................................................................................................................................................100

Excel Exercise..................................................................................................................................................103

C hapter 5

Municipal Solid Waste C ollection................................................................................................................ 105

5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 105

5.2 Developing a Waste Collection System .............................................................................................105

5.2.1 Characterization of W astes......................................................................................................105

5.2.2 Service Area and Level of Service........................................................................................ 106

5.2.3 Public vs. Private Collection.................................................................................................. 106

5.2.4 Funding the Collection System ..............................................................................................106

5.2.5 Labor C ontracts......................................................................................................................... 107

5.3 Logistics of the Collection Program ..................................................................................................107

5.3.1 Storage Container Requirements............................................................................................107

5.3.2 Set-Out Requirem ents..............................................................................................................107

5.3.3 Waste Separation.......................................................................................................................108

5.3.4 Frequency of Collection.......................................................................................................... 108

5.3.5 Waste Pickup Locations.......................................................................................................... 109

5.3.6 Collection Equipment.............................................................................................................. 110

5.3.7 Automated Waste C ollection.................................................................................................111

5.3.8 Developing Collection Routes..............................................................................................114

5.3.9 Route Development................................................................................................................115

5.3.10 Computer-Assisted R outing.................................................................................................116

5.3.11 Waste Transfer.........................................................................................................................116

5.3.12 Types of Transfer Stations.................................................................................................... I 17

5.3.12.1 Small to Medium Transfer Stations

(capacity of less than 100 to 500 tons/day)......................................................119

5.3.12.2 Large Transfer Stations........................................................................................119

5.3.13 Transfer Vehicles.................................................................................................................... 123

5.3.13.1 Trucks and Sem itrailers...................................................................................... 123

5.3.13.2 Rail C ars.................................................................................................................123

References.........................................................................................................................................................124

Suggested Readings........................................................................................................................................124

Questions...........................................................................................................................................................126

C hapter 6

Recycling Solid Wastes.................................................................................................................................. 127

6.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................127

6.2 Recycling Terminology....................................................................................................................... 128

6.3 Recycling Progress and Statistics..................................................................................................... 129

6.4 Recovery and Markets for Components of the Waste Stream .....................................................130

6.5 Market Issues.........................................................................................................................................130

6.6 Purity of M aterials................................................................................................................................131

6.7 Paper........................................................................................................................................................ 131

6.7.1 Paper Manufacture................................................................................................................ 131

6.7.2 Paper Recycling.....................................................................................................................133

6.7.3 Other Paper Markets.............................................................................................................135

6.7.4 Benefits of Paper Recycling............................................................................................... 136

6.8 G lass........................................................................................................................................................136

6.8.1 Glass Manufacture...................................................................................................................136

6.8.2 Glass Recycling....................................................................................................................... 137

6.8.3 The Glass Recycling Process................................................................................................137

6.8.4 C olor.......................................................................................................................................... 138

6.8.5 Contam ination..........................................................................................................................138

6.8.6 Glass M arkets...........................................................................................................................139

6.8.7 Container G lass....................................................................................................................... 139

6.8.8 Other Uses for Recycled G lass............................................................................................140

6.8.9 Benefits of Glass Recycling..................................................................................................140

6.9 Aluminum............................................................................................................................................... 141

6.9.1 Aluminum Manufacturing......................................................................................................141

6.9.2 Aluminum Recycling.............................................................................................................. 142

6.9.3 Specifications for Recovered Aluminum C ans................................................................. 144

6.9.4 Benefits of Aluminum Recycling.........................................................................................144

6.9.5 One Final Note on Aluminum...............................................................................................145

6.10 Ferrous M etals.......................................................................................................................................145

6.10.1 Steel Manufacture..................................................................................................................145

6.10.2 Ferrous Recycling..................................................................................................................146

6.10.3 Benefits of Ferrous Recycling.............................................................................................151

6. II Plastics...................................................................................................................................................151

6.11.1 Plastics M anufacture........................................................................................................... 152

6.11.2 Extrusion.................................................................................................................................152

6.11.3 Blow M olding........................................................................................................................153

6.11.4 Injection M olding.................................................................................................................154

6.11.5 Compression M olding.........................................................................................................154

6.11.6 Plastics Recycling.................................................................................................................154

6.11.7 Processing for Recycling.....................................................................................................155

6.12 Yard Waste........................................................................................................................................... 157

6.13 Food W aste.......................................................................................................................................... 157

6.14 Tires and Rubber................................................................................................................................157

6.14.1 Design and M anufacture.....................................................................................................158

6.14.2 Disposal and Recycling.......................................................................................................158

6.14.3 Recycling................................................................................................................................160

6.14.4 Crumb Rubber.......................................................................................................................161

6.14.5 Retreaded Tires...................................................................................................................... 161

6.15 Goals for the Nation............................................................................................................................164

References.........................................................................................................................................................164

Suggested R eadings....................................................................................................................................... 165

Q uestions...........................................................................................................................................................166

C h ap ter 7

Municipal Solid Waste Processing; Materials Recovery Facilities.........................................................169

7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................169

7.2 The M aterials Recovery Facility.........................................................................................................169

7.2.1 Unit O perations........................................................................................................................171

7.2.2 Weigh station............................................................................................................................172

7.2.3 Receiving A rea.........................................................................................................................172

7.2.4 Storage A rea.............................................................................................................................172

7.2.5 Mobile Equipment in the M R F............................................................................................ 175

7.2.6 Fixed Equipment in the M RF............................................................................................... 175

7.2.7 Conveyors................................................................................................................................. 175

7.2.8 Scales......................................................................................................................................... 178

7.3 Materials Recovery at MRF Unit Operations.................................................................................178

7.4 Materials Separation and Processing at the M R F..........................................................................180

7.4.1 H and-Sorting........................................................................................................................... 180

7.4.2 Screening...................................................................................................................................181

7.4.2.1 Trommel Screens.....................................................................................................182

7.4.2.2 Disk Screens.............................................................................................................186

7.4.2.3 Vibrating Screens....................................................................................................186

7.4.3 Size Reduction......................................................................................................................... 187

7.4.3.1 Densifiers...................................................................................................................187

7.4.3.2 Compactors...............................................................................................................187

7.4.3.3 B aler...........................................................................................................................188

7.4.3.4 Shredders.................................................................................................................. 189

7.4.3.5 Hammermills............................................................................................................190

7.4.3.6 Horizontal-Shaft Ham m erm ills............................................................................190

7.4.3.7 Vertical-Shaft Hammermills.................................................................................. 191

7.4.3.8 Flail M ill....................................................................................................................193