Tourism and the Environment

TOURISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENT & ASSESSMENT

VOWME2

The titles published in this series are listed at the end 0/ this volume.

Tourism and

the Environment

Regional, Economic and Policy Issues

edited by

Helen Briassoulis

National Centre for Scientific Research

"DEMOKRITOS" ,

Athens, Greece

and

Jan van der Straaten

Tilburg University,

Tilburg, The Netherlands

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+ BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

ISBN 978-94-010-5194-1 ISBN 978-94-011-2696-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-2696-0

Typesetting and Iay-out:

H. Op den Brouw

Printed on acid-free paper

AII Rights Reserved

© 1992 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

OriginalIy pubIished by Kluwer Academic PubIishers in 1992

No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or

utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,

including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and

retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.

CONTENTS

PART 1: INTRODUCTION

1. Tourism and the Environment: An Overview

H. BriassouJis and J. van der Straaren

PART 2: TOURISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT: GENERAL

CONSIDERATIONS

2. Environmental Impacts of Tourism: A Framework for Analysis and Evaluation 11

H. BriassouJis

3. Tourism and the Environment: Some Observations on the Concept of

Carrying Capacity 23

H. Coccoss;s and A. Parpairis

4. Experimental Iconology • a Tool for Analysis for the Qualitative Improvement

and Touristic Development of Places 35

J. Ste/anou

PART 3: REGIONAL ISSUES

5. Rural Tourism and Rural Development

M. Keane

6. Regionalization of Tourism Activity in Greece: Problems and Policies

N. Komalas and G. Zacharatos

7. Tourism Development and the Natural Environment: a Model for the Nonhern

43

57

Sporades Islands 67

J.C.J.M. van den Bergh

,;

PART 4: ECONOMIC ISSUES

8. Appropriate Tourism in Mountain Areas

1. van der SrraaU!n

9. On-site Recreation Surveys and Selection Effects: Valuing Open Access

Recreation on Inland Waterways

K. Willis and G.D. Garrod

PART 5: POLICY ISSUES

10. Tourism Policy and Planning for Urban QuaJity

O.J. Ashwonh

11. Tourism and the City: Some Guidelines for a Sustainable Tourism

Development Strategy

1. van der Borg

12. Tourist Development and Environmental Protection in Greece

G. Oliolis and H. CocCO!S;S

13. Tourism and the Envirorunent - Impacts and Strategies

F. Convery and S. Flanagan

14. The Comribution of the Analysis of the Image of a Place to the

Formulation of Tourism Policy

J. Stefanou

Index

85

97

109

121

133

146

155

163

TOURISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT: AN OVERVIEW'

HELEN BRlASSOULIS

Rodou /2, Maroussi /5122,

Athens

Greece

JAN VAN DER STRAATEN

nJburg University, PO Box 90153

5CXXJ LE 1ilburg

The Netherlands

1. Introduction

For many places around the world, especially lhose endowed with a rich and attractive cultural

and/or natural environment. tourism represents a major economic activity and generator of

income and employment but also a significant cause of several unwanted social and environmental

disturbances. At the same time, for most urban dwellers of the industrialized world. escaping to

a tranquill and relaxing place where they can enjoy natural and cultural beauties has become an

annual necessity to maintain their physiological and psychological balance. The natural and

manmade environment of an area constitutes one of the basic "ingredients" of the tourist product

offered and, naturally. the quality of this product depends critically on the quality of its basic

constituent. The issue of maintaining a balanced relationship between tourism and the

environment has received considerable attention since the 1970s. However, only in the 1980s and

1990s it became also a topic of systematic academic inquiry and research, distinguished from the

broader research area of the environmental impacts of recreation and leisure activities. Internatio￾nal organizations, such as the World Tourism Organization, the United Nations, the DECO, and

several others have organized workshops. conducted studies. and suggested policies for

preserving a healthy and attractive environment and, thus, securing the successful tourism

development of an area (WTO, 1980; UNEP. 1987; OECD. 1980). Several international journals

have started to devote special issues to the tourism-environment relationship (International Journal

of Environmental Studies 1985. Annals of Tourism Research 1987. Land Use Policy 1988).

Finally, professional conferences have started to include one or more sessions on the issue. One

such occasion was the 30th European Congress of the Regional Science Association which took

, Thil publication was supported by the Suifrag. Foundation, Tilburg and the Department of Lei.ure Srudiea of

Tilburg Univenity, the Netherlandl.

2 H. Briassoulis and 1. van der Straaten

place in Instanbul, Turkey, in August 1990. in which three sessions were devoted to the

following themes: (a) environmental impacts of tourism; (b) tourism and environmental problems

in the Mediterranean and (c) impact of tourism on local and regional development A selection

of papers presented in these sessions. in revised form, is included in this volume in an effort to

make available to a broader readership more research results and experiences of certain countries

on the very timely subject of the tourism-environment relationship. Three more nonconference

papers have been included in this volume because they lackled additional important aspects on

the subject. The rest of this introductory chapter elaborates on the tourism-environment

relationship and analyzes certain important topics which arise in this context, passes on review

briefly the literature as regards the study of the environmental impacts of tourism, and introduces

the papers appearing in the volume.

2. Tourism and the Environment: the RelatiollShip

Tourism, a multifaceted economic activity, interacts with the environment in the framework of

a two-way process. On the one hand, environmental resources provide one of the basic ~in￾gredients" , a critical production faclOr, for the production of the lOurist product: the natural

and/or manmade setting for the tourist to enjoy, live in, and relax. On the other hand, tourism

produces a variety of unwanted byproducts, which are disposed, intentionally and unintentionally,

to and modify the environment; the case of negative environmental externalities. Moreover,

economic activities besides tourism use up and modify environmental resources and, thus, affect

their quantity and quality available for tourism purposes. Successful tourism development of an

area depends in many important ways on the proper handling of the relationship between lOurism

and the environment; Le. on integrated tourism and regional planning providing for optimal

allocation of environmental resources and other production factors to tourism and other

competing economic activities. A first prerequisite to this purpose is a careful analysis of the

tourism-environment relationship and of the principal concerns arising in the context of planning

and policy making for tourism development.

Tourism development of an area depends on the availability of attractive natural and/or

manmade resources which tourists demand and pay for. It is questionable if tourism could exist

as an economic activity, and be distinguished from other activities, in the absence of a well

preserved and highly valued resource base. Natural, unspoiled scenery, beaches, mountains,

ancient monuments, traditional, picturesque towns and villages and many more constitute the

primary inputs lO the production of the tourist product. The specific type of tourism development

of an area depends primarily on the nature of its environmental resources (e.g. beach resort, ski

resort, etc.). Qualitative and quantitative differences in the distribution of environmental

resources over space account for differences in tourism development at the regional, nationaJ and

internationaJ level with consequent differences in the spatial (and temporal) distribution of

tourism's economic, environmental, social and other impacts. An important requirement for

sustained tourism development is the preservation of the quality and quantity of these resources

at levels acceptable lO the consumers, the tourists.

Tourism's demand for environmental resources is not so simple to identify and analyze,

however, as it may appear al first thought because lOurism is not a single economic activity with

a rather standard pattern of input requirements and a standardized output. Instead it is better

conceptuaJized as a complex of interdependent and inseparable activities (travel, lodging,

shopping, recreation, services) each one with its own demand for inputs and characteristic Qutput.

Tourism and the Environment 3

The demand for inputs and the product of tourism is ultimately a synthesis (not a mere addition)

of these individual demands and outputs. Hence, the analysis of tourism demand for environ￾mental inputs involves analysis of the demands made by its constituent activities as well as the

interrelationships between these individual demands. This analysis is important for two reasons:

(I) tourism development of an area must take into account the availability of local resources

which are necessary for its growth and maintenance and (2) tourism-related activities compete

for the environmental resources of an area among themselves and with other economic activities

(industry, trade, transportation, etc.) and conflicts among different uses arise. These conflicts

result either in deterioration of the quality and quantity of the tourist product, because of undesir￾able spillover effects (externalities) from one activity to another, and, consequently, losses to the

tourism industry, or in a struggle for the domination of the most economically profitable activity.

Changes in the physical, spatial, and socio-economic structure of a tourist area as well as the

existence of several, sometimes burdensome, environmental problems testify to the presence of

these conflicts and the need for some form of conflict management (resolution or reduction)

leading 10 more desirable allocation of environmental resources.

The other facet of the tourism-environment relationship concerns tourism's demand for the

residuals receptor services of the environment. Once an area becomes a tourist attraction pole,

its resources undergo changes simply because they are used up, on the one hand, directly for the

production and consumption of the tourist product and, on the other, indirectly by activities

linked to the tourist-related ones. The residuals generated by these activities are inevitably dispo￾sed to the environment and modify it. The extent and intensity of the modifications caused

depend basically on two interrelated groups of factors: (a) the type and spatia-temporal charac￾teristics of tourism development and (b) the characteristics of the area (UNEP, 1982). The first

group includes such factors as: the type of tourist activity, the socio-economic and behavioral

characteristics of tourists, the imensity and spatio-temporal distribution of use, the strength of

linkages among activities. The second group includes the natural environmental features of the

area, its economic and social structure, the forms of political organization and level of tourism

development. The term · carrying capacity· is used to denote an area's maximum tolerance to

lOurism development before negative impacts set in (pearce and Kirk, 1986; Lindsay,1986).

Although interest is mostly centered on environmemal carrying capacity, social and physical

carrying capacity are also important in the ultimate determination of the maximum amount of

tourism development an area can tolerate.

In addition to the direct environmental impacts of tourism resulting from the interaction of the

two groups of factors mentioned above, indirect impacts are caused also by activities indirectly

related to tourism (e.g. local handicrafts, trade, entertainment, etc.) and by development induced

by the presence of tourism in an area, such as second homes, recreation and shopping facilities,

transport networks, etc. Therefore, the total impact of tourism on the environment is the resultant

of both direct and indirect impacts which very frequently are difficult to distinguish from one

another.

Overall, use of an area's environmental resources for tourism has two consequences. Firstly,

the quantiry of available resources diminishes and sets limits to further tourism development of

the area. Physically and/or economically nonaugmentable resources (e.g. beaches, sites of natural

or archaeological interest) become limiting factors in this respect. For other types of resources,

planning and management actions must be taken to maintain their quantity at levels necessary for

continued tourism activity. Secondly, the qualiry of resources deteriorates with negative effects

on tourism because: (a) the tourist product offered is of inferior quality and (b) the quantity of

good quality product (which was the initial reason for tourism development) is reduced. To avoid

4 H. Briassoulis and 1. van der Straaten

these negative impacts, it is imperative that tourism planning is employed in which the tourism￾environment relationship occupies a central position in providing guidelines and determining the

limits to growth and development of the activities involved. The main concerns arising in this

context are discussed briefly below.

Negative externalities generated by tourism, unlike those produced by other economic

activities, must be controlled at the same place in which they arise and in the short term other￾wise they have negative repercussions on the tourism industry itself. Assessment of an area's

carrjing capacity, at least in relative terms, is an absolute necessity in order to set some limits

to growth and avoid undesirable impacts on the economic vitality of the industry. First priority

is given to the carrying capacity of the natural environment, as defined by its major components:

air, water, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. However, assessment of the area's social and

economic capacity must be also made for a comprehensive account of its tourism development

potential.

Because tourism is not a single economic activity but a complex of interrelated activities,

planning must encompass all these activities, their interrelationships, and their demands on

environmental resources and services some of which will be compatible with one another while

some others may be antagonistic. Moreover, tourism development must be embedded within a

comprehensive planning framework for the whole region of interest in order to avoid the

unwanted consequences of conflicts among incompatible land uses, the overdevelopment of one

activity at the expense of the others and of the region itself, at least in the long run, and to

provide for a reasonable allocation of local environmental resources and services among

competing uses directed to maximizing local welfare and achieving sustainable development of

the area concerned.

Despite measures 10 reduce extremes, tourism is more or less seasonal in nature and its

impacts have also a characteristic seasonal pattern. Tourism planning needs to prevent extreme,

seasonal negative impacts from occu.ring and, at the same time, to avoid investments in environ·

mental protection which will remain unused for long time periods.

3. Environmental Impacts of Tourism: Stale-of·the-Art

Until rather recently, finding literature on the environmental impacts of tourism easily was

considered a luxury because of the paucity of relevant studies and the diversity of sources from

which they had to be retrieved (Farrell and Mclellan, 1987). The first efforts towards

environmental impacts assessment was directed basically to impacts of leisure activities and

especially outdoor recreation (Wall and Wright, 1977). The first studies concerning the environ￾mental impacts of tourism appeared after the mid-seventies (fangi, 1977; Baud-Bovy, 1977)

followed by more research activity in the 1980s. Useful reviews on the subject can be found in

Dunkel (1984), Pearce (1985), Farrell and McLellan (1987), Farell and Runyan (1991).

Naturally, most studies have concentrated on areas experiencing some form of adverse environ￾mental impacts due to tourism development such as the Carribean islands, the Mediterranean

coasts, ski resorts, etc. The main topics covered and the characteristics of these studies as well

as topics incompletely covered or not answered yet are discussed in the following.

The environmental impacts of tourism have been approached from many directions such as the

biological and ecological. the behavioral, the planning and design, and the policy direction. The

biological and ecological impacts of tourism have been studied in the case of specific

environments - islands, coastal zones, alpine areas, national parks, etc. (Edwards, 1987; Gartner,

Tourism and the Environment 5

1987; Jackson, 1986; Lindsay, 1986; Miller, 1987; Rondriguez, 1987). The most important

consideration is the assessment of the environmental carrying capacity necessary to plan for

tourism development harmonized with the environment.

From a behavioral point of view, visiOOr satisfaction with an area's environment as well

residents perceptions of tourists have received scholarly attention (Liu and Vat, 1987). This

viewpoint relates indirectly 00 the notion of the social carrying capacity of an area, i.e. the

amount of social disruption beyond which both visitors and the local population experience

negative consequences (pearce and Kirk, 1986).

Planning and policy malc.ing for tourism development have been heavily concerned with the

goal of attaining a balanced relationship between tourism and the environment. The most

important issues which stand out in this respect are: assessment of an area's carrying capacity

and especially of the limiting factors determining the extent of tourism growth, proper planning

approaches ensuring balanced and sustainable tourism development (Baud-Bovy, 1977; Inskeep,

1987) and suitable policies for implementing the prescribed planning measures (OECD, 1980;

UNEP, 1982 and 1989). The later borrow elements from the broader class of environmental and

development policies and adapt them to tourism. Their core concerns are: control of tourism

growth away from environmentally sensitive areas, restrictions imposed on the types, extent and

intensity of activities permitted in an area, proper management of residuals generated by tourism,

and minimization of conflicts between tourism and competing land uses. Recently, the concept

of ·sustainable tourism development" is promoted in analogy to agricultural and industrial

sustainable development (Farrell and McLellan, 1987; Farell and Runyan, 1991; WCED, 1987).

Although the concept is as old as humanity itself, and it has been practiced in the pre-industrial

age, it became prominent after the publication of the Brundtland-Report (WCED, 1987), which

was a response at the governmental level of several industrialized countries, to the growing threat

on the environment from human industrial activities. In this spirit, tourism development is called

to revere the limits of the natural environment of the host area and use its resources at the present

without depriving them from the future.

The study of the environmental impacts of tourism is currently in a growth stage and more

research is expected to appear in the 19905 especially on issues insufficiently or not covered at

all by the literature up to the present. The ecological impacts of tourism have not been exhaus￾tively studied both over space and across different types of ecological impacts. This may be due

to: (a) difficulties in isolating impacts which can be safely attributed to each one of the activities

constituting tourism, several of which are commonly shared by the local population (e.g.

shopping, recreation, travel); (b) difficulties in isolating the ecological impacts of tourism from

those caused by natural processes or other activities occuring at the same time and place

(Mathieson and Wall, 1981); (c) lack of reliable and accurate empirical evidence for measuring

and explaining the impacts observed; (d) significant variability in the factors influencing the

frequency and magnitude of impacts, e.g. type of tourism activity, intensity, duration, spatio￾temporal distribution, etc., the result being problems of comparability among regions and

difficulties to generalize findings from specific locations and over time.

Similarly, tourist carrying capacity assessments need to become more precise and quantitative

in order to occupy their proper place and playa more decisive role in tourism planning. This

effort cannot be separated, however, from the broader research effort in the area of ·sustainable

development" on which work has already begun in several fields to provide working definitions

and guidelines for industrial development, in general, which is long-term oriented and serves the

present without jeopardizing the survival and well being of future generations. Placed in this

context, tourism development must be coordinated and integrated with the development of the

6 H. Briassoulis and J. van der Straaten

host area along lines dictated by the goal of sustainable regional development. The implications

of this requirement for tourism policy and planning research are)!umerous. Firstly. the spatial

level of analysis must be no larger than the regional since ~sustainabJe development- requires

grass roots efforts and cooperation among tourism producers and consumers in order to succeed.

At the same time, coordination among spatial levels is necessary to avoid conflicting actions and

interventions. Secondly. the planning horizon has 00 be extended without loosing sight of the

present, however, and without forgetting the considerable uncertainty of the future. It seems that

a process of adaptive planning (Holling, 1978) is best suited to this purpose. Thirdly, more

imegrated approaches must be developed to analyze tourism's environmental impacts, capable

of distinguishing direct from indirect impacts as well as impacts due to tourism-induced

development. This is an important requirement for developing suitable and effective policies

directed not only to tourism-related but to other economic activities in the area. Fourthly, the

proper planning tools and measures - physical, socio-economic, institutional, legislative, financial

- which will put tourism and regional development on the sustainability path have to be

investigated and their introduction and implementation must be studied explicitly. In case such

tools exist but are not implemented, their effective implementation must become an important

research theme. Last, but not least, ways to educate effectively both tourism producers and

consumers have to be actively sought because only a change in the mentality of the main actors

can guarantee to the implementabiJity and effectiveness of any instituted policy.

4. Organization or the Volume

'Ille chapters included in this volume reflect the concerns expressed before and represent efforts

to analyze and understand funher the various dimensions of the tourism-environment relationship.

They are grouped broadly according to their specific focus into: general, regional, economic, and

policy chapters, a classification echoing the principal themes with which regional scientists are

concerned.

In the first chapter Helen Briassoulis focuses on the analytical aspects of the tourism￾environment relationship. She proposes an integrated economic-environmental model, based on

the materials balance paradigm, for the coprehensive analysis and evaluation of the environmental

impacts of tourism.

Coccossis and Parpairis discuss the concept of carrying capacity. They argue that this concept

is difficult to define as many starting points are possible. Attention should be given to ecological

as well as economic, sociological, psychOlogical and cultural considerations. 'Ille recent concept

of sustainable development is more or less related to carrying capacity, which is of particular

importance as an operational tool for tourism planning.

Stefanou suggests the use of experimental iconoiogy for the analysis of landscape quality when

improvements are necessary for the touristic promotion of a place. This approach helps in

identifying those landscape elements which makes the greatest contribution to the touristic

attractiveness of an area or detract from it. The results obtained in this way are used in synthesis,

i.e. creation of tourist images and places which ensure the sustained attractiveness of an area as

well as design of policies to make this attractiveness pay.

Keane discusses the role tourism can play in rural development. He argues that few rural

communities are likely to bring about rural development solely through the mechanism of

tourism. A more effective strategy for rural development is to make tourism development a part

of a community integrated development plan. There are good a priori economic arguments as

Tourism and the Environment 7

wen as encouraging pieces of empirical evidence to suppon this view. A hallmark of rural

community tourism is that it is a community product and that it is developed from local

structures. A key factor in the development of community tourism is local coordination linked

to wider product and market structures.

Konsolas and Zacharatos pay attention to the problem of regionalization of tourism in Greece.

Compared with the aUionomous character of policies for regional development during the past

15 years, the exclusive focus on the monetary aspects of international tourism is gradually

abandoned and the regionalization of tourism development is coming to be recognized as the

second most basic aspect (after currency) of this development in Greece. In this perspective,

tourism development is now promoted as one of the basic instruments of regional policy,

especially for socio-economically depressed and problematic areas.

Van den Bergh presents an analysis of the relationship between tourism development and the

natural environment for an island region in Greece, the Northern Sporades. His analysis is based

on a dynamic model which describes the development of the economies of the three main islands

of the region and their interactions with the terrestrial and marine environment. The relationship

between tourism and the environment is taking place on various levels. In addition to direct

tourism impacts on the environment through, for instance, pollution, noise and disturbance,

indirect, irreversible and long term consequences must be considered also. In this perspective,

tourist patterns over time, recreational attractiveness of the region, land use patterns and the

growth rate and direction of economic developmem dominated by tourism are receiving special

attention.

Van der Straaten discusses the traditional welfare approaches of valuing nature and the

environment. He is of the opinion that these instruments are no longer appropriate for describing

and analyzing important environmental problems. This is demonstrated in the case of tourism in

mountain areas, which are threatened considerably by erosion and acid rain. By comparing the

impact on nature and the environment of a traditional ski resort with ecotourism in Italy, he

comes to the conclusion that alternative approaches, in which more attention is given to the

relationship between economics and ecology, should be used. Such an approach is presented.

Willis and Garrod are focussing on the recreational value of inland waterways which are both

commercial and public goods. Commercial recreation extracts some form of payment, for

example, cruising which requires mooring licenses and fees, or fishing which needs a permit.

However, for other types of recreation, such as walking along me towpath, viewing the canal

scene or watching boats pass through locks, mere is usually no charge. With the help of an

Individual Travel Cost Method (lTCM) an estimation is made of the utility or economic tenefits

associated with informal, non-priced, or public good forms of recreation along selected inland

waterways and canals in me United Kingdom. Given that no price is charged for access,

considerable benefits from the non-priced recreational activity may accrue to individuaJs by way

of consumer surplus. The ITCM permits consumer-surplus estimates of the vaJue of recreation

over the canal system as a whole to be determined. At £62 million, this value is considerable

larger than the 1989 government subsidies of £44.5 million to the British Waterways Board.

Ashworth gives speciaJ attention to cities as an environment, even though the naturaJ attributes

of site, vegetational cover, building material and the like have been restructured by deliberate

intervention and design. The distinction between the so-called natural and the built-environment

is one of the degree of such intervention rather than its existence. Which planning strategies can

be used to develop cities from a touristic point of view? Some examples are discussed. No

general lessons for the development of planning strategy can be drawn. The difficulty is that the

very selectivity of mese cases stresses the characteristics of the particular cases. There is no

8 H. Briassoulis and 1. van der Straaten

cleareul blue-print. Neither the size, antiquity. dominant political ideology. type of commodified

heritage environment, nor a particular mix of functions seems to offer clear guidance. A higb

quality urban environment and urban herilage tourism can be incompatible or mutually supporting

opportunities; the choice between these alternatives is not predetermined by any particular set of

conditions and, thus, remains open to deliberate decision.

Van der Borg argues that when analysing the impact of tourism on the environment, reference

is usuaJly made to the devastating effects mass tourism has on the natural environment. Only

recently, the question whether or not cities, originally designed to host people, might have similar

problems with tourism has arisen. An affirmative answer to this question implies that a city's

policy for tourism development has to account for that city's limits to absorb visitors flows. In

other words, urban tourism development strategy has to be compatible with the urban

environment. The aim of his contribution is to discuss the principal characteristics of such a

strategy, as far environmental issues are concerned. The intention is to give a comprehensive

answer to the question whether, and under what circumstances. urban tourism may be worth

developing, a crucial question for many cities that are at the moment considering promoting

tourism development.

Chiotis and Coccossis highlight some of the basic policy issues relating to the role of tourism

in national and regional development with a particular focus on the strong interrelationships

between tourism policies and the environment. The basic question revolves around the role of

tourism in Mediterranean countries and particularly in certain regions which are sensitive to

tourism and at the same time sensitive to the preservation of their natural resources and their

environmental quality. To illustrate the issues involved in the context of tourist development and

environmental protection, the experience of Greece and some of its regions are used as an

example. Special reference is made to the role of the European Community and international

cooperation.

Convery and Flanagan deal with the relationship between tourism and the environment in

Ireland. The environment - natural and man-made - is of vital importance to tourism in Ireland.

It represents both the backdrop to many other activities and comprises a major attraction in its

own right. The purpose of the authors is to examine the development of environmental-based

tourism in Ireland and its possible impact on the landscape. Rural and urban threats to the

environment in relation to tourism are discussed and tourism management strategies available for

environmental protection are examined and compared with procedures in Northern Ireland.

In the last chapter Stefanou elaborates on the use of the image of a place, its landscape. as a

principal means for the touristic development and promotion of this place. He utilizes the

postcard, which is simultaneously a communcation medium, a consumer product and mass art,

as a tool for the analysis of the landscape of touristic places. This technique is based on the

presumption that the aesthetic and semantic interpretation of the landscape depends on the way

and the mode by which it is formed and perceived as well as the degree of mental, psychological

and practical appropriation of the landscape by an individual.

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Tourism and the Environment 9

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