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The Science of Environmental Pollution, Second Edition
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SECOND EDITION
THE
SCIENCE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
SECOND EDITION
THE
SCIENCE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
F R A N K R. S P E L L M A N
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Boca Raton London New York
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
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Cover photo: Taken by Revonna M. Bieber in Vancouver, BC, Canada, 2008. With permission.
CRC Press
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© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Spellman, Frank R.
The science of environmental pollution / Frank R. Spellman. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4398-1302-7 (alk. paper)
1. Pollution. 2. Environmental sciences. I. Title.
TD174.S675 2010
628.5--dc22 2009039100
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
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Dedication
For
JoAnn Garnett-Chapman (Ultimate Friend)
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
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vii
Contents
Preface....................................................................................................................xix
Author ................................................................................................................. xxiii
Part I. Introduction
1 Pollution: What Is It? ........................................................................................3
Introduction .........................................................................................................3
Reality ...........................................................................................................3
Pollution Defined.................................................................................................5
Key Terms .....................................................................................................8
Case Study 1.1. Eau de Paper Mill.............................................................. 14
Pollution: Effects Often Easy to See, Feel, Taste, or Smell .............................. 15
Case Study 1.2. Toxic Sulfuric Acid ........................................................... 16
Preventing Pollution.................................................................................... 16
Pollution and Environmental Science/Health ................................................... 17
A Different Approach ................................................................................. 19
Case Study 1.3. Salmon and the Rachel River............................................20
Environmental Pollution and Technology: The Connection .............................23
Case Study 1.4. Attwater’s Prairie Chicken ................................................26
Environmental Degradation........................................................................26
Case Study 1.5. The Amish and Lancaster County, Pennsylvania .............27
The Good Life.............................................................................................29
Case Study 1.6. Tragedy of the Commons Revisited..................................30
Science and Technology Offer Solutions........................................................... 31
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................... 32
Discussion Questions......................................................................................... 33
References and Recommended Reading ...........................................................34
2 Pollution Science Fundamentals.....................................................................37
Introduction .......................................................................................................37
Biogeochemical Cycles......................................................................................38
Carbon Cycle...............................................................................................39
Nitrogen Cycle............................................................................................. 41
Phosphorus Cycle........................................................................................42
Sulfur Cycle ................................................................................................ 43
Energy Flow through an Ecosystem and the Biosphere....................................44
Materials Balance .......................................................................................44
Energy Flow in the Biosphere.....................................................................46
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem.................................................................... 47
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Units of Measurement .......................................................................................49
Units of Mass ..............................................................................................50
Units of Length ........................................................................................... 51
Units of Volume .......................................................................................... 51
Units of Temperature................................................................................... 52
Units of Pressure ......................................................................................... 52
Units Often Used in Environmental Pollution Studies ............................... 53
Liquids .................................................................................................. 53
Gases or Vapors .................................................................................... 53
The Bottom Line ...............................................................................................54
Discussion Questions.........................................................................................54
References and Recommended Reading ........................................................... 55
3 Global Pollution: The Problem....................................................................... 57
Introduction .......................................................................................................58
Global Interdependence.....................................................................................58
Case Study 3.1. Persistent Organic Pollutants.............................................59
Global Meeting on Persistent Organic Pollutants.................................59
Global Pollution Problems: Causal Factors.......................................................60
Frontier Mentality .......................................................................................60
Population Growth ......................................................................................62
Development................................................................................................64
Case Study 3.2. Transnational Corporations
and Environmental Pollution..........................................................64
Development and Soil Degradation......................................................65
Development and Freshwater Degradation...........................................65
Development and Atmospheric Air Degradation .................................65
Pollution and Global Environmental Degradation ............................................66
So, What Is the Answer? ................................................................................... 67
Discussion Questions......................................................................................... 67
References and Recommended Readings..........................................................68
4 Sources of Pollution ......................................................................................... 71
A Historical Perspective.................................................................................... 71
Introduction .......................................................................................................72
Natural Pollutants.............................................................................................. 74
Case Study 4.1. Keeper of the Spring .........................................................77
Case Study 4.2. Leaves in the Stream......................................................... 78
Pollutant Terminology.......................................................................................79
Pollutant-Related Terms: Defined ...............................................................80
Soil, Water, and Air Pollution: The Interface....................................................82
Case Study 4.3. Problem Wastes—Tire Disposal .......................................82
Discussion Questions.........................................................................................83
References and Recommended Reading ...........................................................84
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Contents ix
Part II. Air
5 Air......................................................................................................................87
Introduction .......................................................................................................88
All About Air ....................................................................................................88
The Components of Air: Characteristics and Properties ..................................90
Atmospheric Nitrogen.................................................................................90
Physical Properties of Nitrogen ............................................................ 91
Uses for Nitrogen..................................................................................92
Nitrogen Oxides....................................................................................92
Atmospheric Oxygen...................................................................................92
Physical Properties of Oxygen..............................................................92
Uses for Oxygen....................................................................................92
Ozone: Just Another Form of Oxygen ..................................................93
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide .....................................................................93
Physical Properties of Carbon Dioxide ................................................94
Uses for Carbon Dioxide ......................................................................94
Atmospheric Argon.....................................................................................95
Physical Properties of Argon................................................................95
Uses for Argon......................................................................................95
Atmospheric Neon ......................................................................................95
Physical Properties of Neon..................................................................95
Uses for Neon .......................................................................................95
Atmospheric Helium ...................................................................................96
Physical Properties of Helium ..............................................................96
Atmospheric Krypton .................................................................................97
Physical Properties of Krypton.............................................................97
Uses for Krypton ..................................................................................97
Atmospheric Xenon.....................................................................................97
Physical Properties of Xenon................................................................97
Uses for Xenon......................................................................................97
Atmospheric Hydrogen ...............................................................................98
Physical Properties of Hydrogen ..........................................................98
Uses for Hydrogen ................................................................................98
Atmospheric Water......................................................................................98
Atmospheric Particulate Matter..................................................................99
Air for Combustion.......................................................................................... 101
Air for Power ................................................................................................... 101
Stratification of the Atmosphere...................................................................... 102
Physical Properties and Dynamics of Air ....................................................... 103
Force, Weight, and Mass........................................................................... 104
Pressure..................................................................................................... 105
Work and Energy ...................................................................................... 105
Diffusion and Dispersion .......................................................................... 105
Compressibility ......................................................................................... 106
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Gas Laws ......................................................................................................... 106
Boyle’s Law............................................................................................... 106
Example 5.1 ........................................................................................ 107
Charles’s Law............................................................................................ 107
Ideal Gas Law ........................................................................................... 108
Example 5.2 ........................................................................................ 109
Flow Rate .................................................................................................. 109
Gas Conversions .............................................................................................. 109
Major Constituents .................................................................................... 110
Both Major and Minor Constituents ......................................................... 110
Minor Constituents.................................................................................... 111
Gas Velocity .................................................................................................... 111
Gas Stream Treatment (Residence) Time........................................................ 111
Gas Density ..................................................................................................... 111
Heat Capacity and Enthalpy............................................................................ 112
Heat and Energy in the Atmosphere ............................................................... 112
Adiabatic Lapse Rate....................................................................................... 113
Viscosity .......................................................................................................... 114
Flow Characteristics........................................................................................ 114
Particle Physics................................................................................................ 116
Characteristics of Particles.............................................................................. 116
Surface Area and Volume ......................................................................... 117
Example 5.3 ........................................................................................ 118
Aerodynamic Diameter............................................................................. 118
Particle Size Categories ............................................................................120
Regulated Particulate Matter Categories............................................120
Size Distribution ....................................................................................... 121
Particle Formation ........................................................................................... 122
Physical Attrition ...................................................................................... 122
Combustion Particle Burnout.................................................................... 123
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Nucleation.......................................... 123
Droplet Evaporation ..................................................................................124
Collection Mechanisms ...................................................................................124
Inertial Impaction and Interception ..........................................................125
Brownian Diffusion...................................................................................126
Gravitational Settling................................................................................ 127
Electrostatic Attraction .............................................................................128
Thermophoresis.........................................................................................128
Diffusiophoresis ........................................................................................128
Atmospheric Dispersion, Transformation, and Deposition ............................. 129
Weather ..................................................................................................... 130
Turbulence................................................................................................. 130
Mixing....................................................................................................... 131
Topography................................................................................................ 131
Temperature Inversions............................................................................. 132
Plume Rise ................................................................................................ 132
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Transport ................................................................................................... 133
Dispersion Models..................................................................................... 133
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 134
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 134
References and Recommended Reading ......................................................... 134
6 Air Pollution ................................................................................................... 137
Yurk and Smilodon.......................................................................................... 137
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 140
Types and Sources of Air Pollutants......................................................... 140
Criteria Air Pollutants............................................................................... 141
Sulfur Dioxide .................................................................................... 141
Nitrogen Oxides.................................................................................. 142
Case Study 6.1. Meeting Air Pollution Standards .............................. 143
Carbon Monoxide ............................................................................... 143
Particulate Matter ............................................................................... 143
Lead Particulates ................................................................................ 144
Ozone.................................................................................................. 144
Deposition of Pollutants in the Atmosphere.................................................... 144
Problems of Atmospheric Pollution................................................................. 144
Acid Deposition......................................................................................... 145
Smog Formation........................................................................................ 147
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion ................................................................. 147
Case Study 6.2. Ozone Hole over Antarctica at Record Size............. 149
Climate Change......................................................................................... 149
The Past .............................................................................................. 151
A Time of Ice...................................................................................... 152
Warm Winter ...................................................................................... 154
Global Warming ................................................................................. 156
Chlorofluorocarbons ........................................................................... 159
Global Dimming ....................................................................................... 159
Haze ..........................................................................................................161
Roadway Air Dispersion ........................................................................... 161
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 162
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 162
References and Recommended Readings........................................................ 162
7 Air Pollution Remediation............................................................................. 165
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 166
Pollution Prevention (P2) .......................................................................... 166
Reducing Air Emissions ........................................................................... 166
Clearing the Air............................................................................................... 167
Air Pollution Control: Choices ........................................................................ 167
Case Study 7.1. Cedar Creek Composting ................................................ 168
Case Study 7.2. Chlorine Regulations....................................................... 170
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Air Pollution Control Equipment and Systems ............................................... 172
Removal of Dry Particulate Matter ................................................................. 172
Particulate Matter...................................................................................... 173
Air Pollution Control Equipment for Particulates..................................... 173
Gravity Settlers................................................................................... 173
Cyclone Collectors.............................................................................. 174
Electrostatic Precipitators................................................................... 174
Wet (Venturi) Scrubbers..................................................................... 174
Baghouse (Fabric) Filters.................................................................... 175
Removal of Gaseous Pollutants: Stationary Sources....................................... 175
Absorption................................................................................................. 176
Adsorption................................................................................................. 177
Condensation............................................................................................. 178
Combustion ............................................................................................... 178
Direct-Flame Combustion (Flaring)................................................... 179
Thermal Combustion (Afterburners).................................................. 179
Catalytic Combustion ......................................................................... 179
Removal of Gaseous Pollutants: Mobile Sources............................................ 180
Control of Crankcase Emissions............................................................... 180
Control of Evaporative Emissions............................................................. 181
Catalytic Converters.................................................................................. 181
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 181
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 182
References and Recommended Reading ......................................................... 182
Part III. Water
8 Water............................................................................................................... 187
Water: Earth’s Blood ....................................................................................... 188
Water: Facts and Prose .................................................................................... 189
Water: The Basics............................................................................................ 190
How Special, Strange, and Different Is Water?............................................... 191
Characteristics of Water .................................................................................. 191
Inflammable Air + Vital Air = Water ....................................................... 193
Just Two H’s and One O............................................................................ 193
Somewhere between 0° and 105°.............................................................. 193
Water’s Physical Properties ............................................................................. 194
Capillary Action .............................................................................................. 195
The Water Cycle .............................................................................................. 196
Specific Water Movements .............................................................................. 197
Q and Q Factors............................................................................................... 199
Sources of Water.............................................................................................. 201
Watershed Protection.......................................................................................202
Multiple-Barrier Concept..........................................................................202
Watershed Management............................................................................203
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Water Quality Impact................................................................................205
Watershed Protection and Regulations .....................................................205
A Watershed Protection Plan ....................................................................206
Reservoir Management Practices..............................................................206
Potable Water Source.......................................................................................206
Potable Water ............................................................................................206
Key Definitions .........................................................................................207
Surface Water ..................................................................................................208
Location! Location! Location! ..................................................................208
How Readily Available Is Potable Water? ................................................209
Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water..................................... 212
Surface Water Hydrology.......................................................................... 213
Raw Water Storage.................................................................................... 213
Surface Water Quality............................................................................... 214
Groundwater Supply........................................................................................ 215
Groundwater.............................................................................................. 215
Groundwater Quality ................................................................................ 217
GUDISW................................................................................................... 218
Perpetual Motion....................................................................................... 218
Well Systems ................................................................................................... 219
Water Use ........................................................................................................220
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 221
Discussion Questions.......................................................................................222
References and Recommended Reading .........................................................222
9 Water Pollution ..............................................................................................223
Case Study 9.1. Chesapeake Bay .....................................................................224
Chesapeake Bay: A Modest Proposal .......................................................224
Introduction .....................................................................................................225
Surface Water ..................................................................................................226
Lentic (Standing or Still) Water Systems..................................................227
Still Water...........................................................................................227
Lotic (Flowing) Water Systems ................................................................229
Stream Genesis ...................................................................................229
Setting the Stage.............................................................................................. 231
Surface Water Pollutants ................................................................................. 231
Case Study 9.2. Nonpoint-Source Pollution and the Chesapeake Bay...... 232
Case Study 9.3. Good Science vs. “Feel Good” Science .......................... 232
Biochemical Oxygen Demand ..................................................................234
Nutrients....................................................................................................234
Nitrogen .............................................................................................. 235
Phosphorus.......................................................................................... 235
pH..............................................................................................................236
Solids.........................................................................................................237
Fats, Oil, and Grease.................................................................................238
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Pathogenic Organisms............................................................................... 239
Giardia................................................................................................240
Cryptosporidium.................................................................................247
Cyclospora.......................................................................................... 252
Toxic Pollutants......................................................................................... 253
Nontoxic Pollutants ................................................................................... 253
Case Study 9.4. River Cleanup.................................................................. 253
Macroscopic Pollution...............................................................................254
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products........................................... 257
Groundwater Pollution.....................................................................................259
Groundwater Uses and Sources ................................................................260
Aquifers..................................................................................................... 261
Groundwater Flow ....................................................................................262
Case Study 9.5. Nitrates and Pregnancy ...................................................263
Wetlands ..........................................................................................................264
The Bottom Line on Surface Water and Groundwater Pollution ....................265
Discussion Questions.......................................................................................266
References and Recommended Reading .........................................................266
10 Water Pollution: Remediation..................................................................... 273
Historical Prospective...................................................................................... 274
Effect of Regulations on Preventing Water Pollution...................................... 276
A Sherlock Holmes at the Pump ..................................................................... 276
Dr. John Snow ...........................................................................................277
Cholera ......................................................................................................277
Flashback to 1854 London ........................................................................ 278
Pump Handle Removal—To Water Treatment (Disinfection) .................. 279
Water Treatment ..............................................................................................280
Wastewater Treatment ..................................................................................... 281
Thermal Pollution Treatment ..........................................................................285
Pollution Control Technology: Underground Storage Tanks ..........................286
Pollution Control Technology: Groundwater Remediation .............................288
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 291
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 291
References and Recommended Reading ......................................................... 291
Part IV. Soil
11 Soil Basics .....................................................................................................295
Introduction .....................................................................................................296
Soil: What Is It?...............................................................................................298
Key Terms Defined..........................................................................................300
All About Soil..................................................................................................306
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Functions of Soil .......................................................................................306
Soil as a Plant Growth Medium..........................................................307
Soil as a Regulator of Water Supplies ................................................307
Soil as a Recycler of Raw Materials................................................... 310
Soil as a Habitat for Soil Organisms................................................... 311
Soil as an Engineering Medium ......................................................... 311
Soil as a Source of Materials.............................................................. 312
Concurrent Soil Functions ........................................................................ 312
Soil Basics ....................................................................................................... 313
Physical Properties of Soil ........................................................................ 315
Soil Separates............................................................................................ 317
Soil Formation................................................................................................. 319
Weathering ................................................................................................320
Factors That Influence Weathering.....................................................320
Categories of Weathering Processes...................................................320
Soil Characterization.......................................................................................325
Diagnostic Horizons and Temperature and Moisture Regimes ................ 326
Soil Taxonomy .......................................................................................... 327
Soil Orders..........................................................................................328
Soil Suborders..................................................................................... 329
Soil Great Groups and Subgroups ...................................................... 329
Soil Families and Series ..................................................................... 329
Soil Mechanics and Physics ............................................................................ 330
Soil Mechanics.......................................................................................... 330
Weight–Volume or Space and Volume Relationships......................... 330
Soil Particle Characteristics................................................................ 332
Soil Stress ........................................................................................... 334
Soil Compressibility ........................................................................... 334
Soil Compaction ................................................................................. 334
Soil Failure.......................................................................................... 335
Soil Physics ............................................................................................... 336
Water and Soil..................................................................................... 336
Water: What Is It?............................................................................... 336
Water Physical Properties................................................................... 337
The Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)............................................... 338
Soil Water ........................................................................................... 339
Soil Chemistry................................................................................................. 339
Solid Wastes .................................................................................................... 339
Case Study 11.1. The Great Circle Route.................................................. 341
Solid Waste Regulatory History in the United States...............................342
Solid Waste Characteristics....................................................................... 343
Sources of Municipal Solid Wastes...........................................................344
Residential Sources of MSW..............................................................344
Commercial Sources of MSW............................................................345
Institutional Sources of MSW ............................................................345
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Construction and Demolition Sources of MSW .................................346
Municipal Services Sources of MSW.................................................346
Treatment Plant Site Sources of MSW ...............................................346
The Bottom Line .............................................................................................346
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 347
References and Recommended Reading .........................................................348
12 Soil Pollution................................................................................................. 351
Clean Soil ........................................................................................................ 352
Soil Pollutants: Transport Mechanisms Affecting Flow Regime.................... 352
Movement of Organics in Soil .................................................................. 355
The Basics of Soil Pollution ............................................................................ 355
Surface Origins of Soil Pollutants ............................................................ 356
Gaseous and Airborne Particulate Pollutants ........................................... 357
Infiltration of Contaminated Surface Water ............................................. 357
Land Disposal of Solid and Liquid Waste Materials ................................ 358
Stockpiles, Tailings, and Spoils ................................................................ 358
Dumps ....................................................................................................... 358
Salt Spread on Roads ................................................................................ 358
Animal Feedlots and Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations ............ 359
Fertilizers and Pesticides .......................................................................... 361
Accidental Spills ....................................................................................... 361
Composting of Leaves and Other Wastes ................................................. 362
Industrial Practices and Soil Contamination................................................... 362
Underground Storage Tanks...................................................................... 362
Contamination from Oilfield Sites............................................................ 362
Contamination from Chemical Sites.........................................................363
Contamination from Geothermal Sites.....................................................363
Contamination from Manufactured Gas Plants ........................................364
Contamination from Mining Sites ............................................................364
Case Study 12.1. Acid Rock Drainage/Acid Mine Drainage ....................365
Contamination from Environmental Terrorism and Ecoterrorism...........365
Case Study 12.2. Revenge Is Mine, Sayeth Daniel ...................................366
What Is Terrorism? ............................................................................. 370
Terrorism by Any Other Name Is … ................................................. 372
Standard Dictionary Definition of Terrorism ..................................... 372
An Old Cliché on a Terrorist .............................................................. 373
Hazardous Substances..................................................................................... 374
America: A Throwaway Society............................................................... 375
What Is a Hazardous Substance? .............................................................. 375
Hazardous Wastes............................................................................................ 377
What Is a Hazardous Waste?..................................................................... 377
Hazardous Waste Legislation ..........................................................................380
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act................................................380
CERCLA................................................................................................... 381
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