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The power of ideas : Intellectual input and political change in East and Southeast Asia
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THE POWER OF IDEAS
Intellectual Input and Political Change in East and Southeast Asia
Edited by Claudia Derichs and Thomas Heberer
This book brings a new approach to the study of political change in East and
Southeast Asia and demonstrates the importance of political ideas behind
policies and politics. The traditional approach to studying the politics of
a region is to focus on events, personalities, issues – the mechanics of the
political process. What this volume looks to do is to step back and examine
ideas and visions, as well as those who articulate them and/or put them into
operation.
The contributors thus aim to conceptualize what discourse means for
political change in East and Southeast Asia, and how ideas in discourses
affect political practice. As well as theorizing on the roles of intellectuals,
ideas and discourses for processes of democratization, reform and change,
the chapters also offer deep insights into the national and local, the general
and the specific situation of the selected countries.
Derichs and Heberer THE POWER OF IDEAS
www.niaspress.dk
THE POWER
OF IDEAS
Intellectual Input and Political
Change in East and Southeast Asia
Edited by
Claudia Derichs and
Thomas Heberer
Derichs_PPC_NEW.indd 1 9/11/05 12:39:00
THE POWER OF IDEAS
Power_of_Ideas_Frontmatter.fm Page i Wednesday, September 21, 2005 12:43 PM
NORDIC INSTITUTE OF ASIAN STUDIES
NIAS Studies in Asian Topics
15. Renegotiating Local Values Merete Lie and Ragnhild Lund
16. Leadership on Java Hans Antlöv and Sven Cederroth (eds)
17. Vietnam in a Changing World Irene Nørlund, Carolyn Gates and Vu Cao
Dam (eds)
18. Asian Perceptions of Nature Ole Bruun and Arne Kalland (eds)
19. Imperial Policy and Southeast Asian Nationalism Hans Antlöv and Stein
Tønnesson (eds)
20. The Village Concept in the Transformation of Rural Southeast Asia
Mason C. Hoadley and Christer Gunnarsson (eds)
21. Identity in Asian Literature Lisbeth Littrup (ed.)
22. Mongolia in Transition Ole Bruun and Ole Odgaard (eds)
23. Asian Forms of the Nation Stein Tønnesson and Hans Antlöv (eds)
24. The Eternal Storyteller Vibeke Børdahl (ed.)
25. Japanese Influences and Presences in Asia Marie Söderberg and Ian
Reader (eds)
26. Muslim Diversity Leif Manger (ed.)
27. Women and Households in Indonesia Juliette Koning, Marleen Nolten,
Janet Rodenburg and Ratna Saptari (eds)
28. The House in Southeast Asia Stephen Sparkes and Signe Howell (eds)
29. Rethinking Development in East Asia Pietro P. Masina (ed.)
30. Coming of Age in South and Southeast Asia Lenore Manderson and
Pranee Liamputtong (eds)
31. Imperial Japan and National Identities in Asia, 1895–1945 Li Narangoa
and Robert Cribb (eds)
32. Contesting Visions of the Lao Past Christopher E. Goscha and Søren
Ivarsson (eds)
33. Reaching for the Dream Melanie Beresford and Tran Ngoc Angie (eds)
34. Mongols from Country to City Ole Bruun and Li Naragoa (eds)
35. Four Masters of Chinese Storytelling Vibeke Børdahl, Fei Li and Huang
Ying (eds)
36. The Power of Ideas Claudia Derichs and Thomas Heberer (eds)
37. Beyond the Green Myth Peter Sercombe and Bernard Sellato (eds)
38. Kinship and Food in South-East Asia Monica Janowski and Fiona
Kerlogue (eds)
Power_of_Ideas_Frontmatter.fm Page ii Wednesday, September 21, 2005 12:43 PM
THE POWER
OF IDEAS
Intellectual Input and Political
Change in East and Southeast Asia
Edited by
Claudia Derichs and Thomas Heberer
Power_of_Ideas_Frontmatter.fm Page iii Wednesday, September 21, 2005 12:43 PM
Nordic Institute of Asian Studies
Studies in Asian Topics Series, No. 35
First published in 2006 by NIAS Press
Nordic Institute of Asian Studies
Leifsgade 33, DK–2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
tel: (+45) 3532 9501 • fax: (+45) 3532 9549
E–mail: [email protected] • Website: www.niaspress.dk
Typesetting by Hurix Systems Private Ltd, Mumbai, India
Produced by Bookchase
Printed and bound in China
© Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 2006
While copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Nordic Institute of
Asian Studies, copyright in the individual papers belongs to their authors.
No paper may be reproduced in whole or in part without the express
permission of the author or publisher.
British Library Catalogue in Publication Data
The power of ideas : intellectual input and political change in
East and Southeast Asia. - (NIAS studies in Asian topics ;
no. 36)
1.East Asia - Politics and government 2.Asia, Southeastern -
Politics and government
I.Derichs, Claudia II.Heberer, Thomas
320.9’5
ISBN 87-91114-81-0
Derichs_start-prelims.fm Page 4 Friday, November 4, 2005 10:28 AM
CONTENTS
Contributors viii
1. Introduction 1
Claudia Derichs and Thomas Heberer
2. Discourses, Intellectuals, Collective Behaviour and
Political Change Theoretical Aspects of Discourses 16
Thomas Heberer
3. The Role of Asian Intellectuals in a Globalized Economy:
A Commentary 36
Lee Lai To
4. Diffusion and Spill-Over Effects: Intellectuals’ Discourse
and Its Extension into Policy-Making in Japan 46
Karin Adelsberger
5. Bottom-Up Travel of Ideas for Political Reform in Malaysia 64
Claudia Derichs
6. Discourses on Political Reform and Democratization in
Transitional China 80
He Zengke
7. Discourses on Democracy and Political Reform in
Contemporary South Korea 98
Sunhyuk Kim
8. Political Dissent and Political Reform in Vietnam 1997–2002 115
Carlyle A. Thayer
9. New Trends in Chinese Thought: Economics and Morality 133
Olga N. Borokh
Power_of_Ideas_Frontmatter.fm Page v Wednesday, September 21, 2005 12:43 PM
vi The Power of Ideas
10. Village Elections and Three Discourses on Democracy 150
Baogang He
11. Why Do We Look at Political Discourse in Vietnam? 166
Patrick Raszelenberg
12. The Discourse on Contemporary Chinese
Nationalism – An Alternative Reading 184
Gunter Schubert
13. Regional Community-Building in Asia? Transnational
Discourses, Identity- and Institution-Building
in the Fields of Human and Women’s Rights 202
Martina Timmermann
14. The Most Popular Social Movement in China During the 1990s 221
Edward Friedman
15. Chinese Professionals: New Identities and New Style Politics 237
Carol Lee Hamrin
16. NGOs in the Discourse on Political Change and
Democratization in Malaysia 255
Saliha Hassan
17. The Impact of Discourses, Institutional Affiliation and
Networks among New and Old Elites for Political
Reform in China 276
Nora Sausmikat
18. New Ways for Citizens’ Movements to Participate in
Political Discourse: The Case of Okinawa 300
Gabriele Vogt
Index 315
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LIST OF FIGURES
4.1. Classification of influence strategies 48
4.2. Different influence strategies 49
4.3. Channels for influence 58
5.1. Western scheme of idea diffusion 66
17.1. Parameter for diffusion of ideas 280
LIST OF TABLES
8.1. A Typology of Political Dissidents in Vietnam, 1997–2002 125
16.1. A Typology of Earlier Malaysian NGOs 260–261
16.2. Typology of Malaysian NGOs in 1990s 263–264
Power_of_Ideas_Frontmatter.fm Page vii Wednesday, September 21, 2005 12:43 PM
CONTRIBUTORS
Karin Adelsberger is Assistant to the Managing Director for Seikoh Giken
Europe. In 1992–1997, she studied in East Asia Studies (focus: Japan and
politics) in Duisburg (Germany) and Seto (Japan). In 1997, she was an
assistant/secretary at Japan External Trade Organization in Düsseldorf
(Germany). In 1998–2000, she was a research student at the Faculty of Law
and Politics at the University of Tokyo (focus: Japanese reaction to
international crises in East Asia). In 2000–2003, she was a research fellow at
the Institute of East Asian Studies at the University of Duisburg (Germany).
For participating in the research project “Discourses on reform and
democratization in East and Southeast Asia”, her planned PhD thesis has the
working title “The diffusion of ideas into the policy-making process in
Japan”.
Olga N. Borokh is a leading research fellow at the Russian Academy of
Sciences, Institute of Far Eastern Studies (IDV RAN, Moscow). Her major
fields of research include intellectual trends in contemporary China with an
emphasis on western influences upon Chinese debates on reforms and
modernization. Her recent book is Contemporary Chinese Economic Thought
(1998).
Claudia Derichs is an assistant professor for political science at the Institute
of East Asian Studies, University of Duisburg, Germany. She has published
widely on Japanese politics and social movements in Japan in addition to
articles on nation-building and political Islam in Southeast Asia, particularly
Malaysia. Prior to her academic career, Dr Derichs worked as a science
journalist. Research: Nation-building in Malaysia, Islam and political reform
in Southeast Asia and the Middle East (comparative politics) and female
political leaders in East, Southeast and South Asia (comparative gender
studies). Teaching: Domestic and foreign policy in Japan, political Islam in
Southeast Asia and international relations in the Asia-Pacific.
Edward Friedman is a professor of political science at the University of
Wisconsin, Madison, where he teaches courses on the Politics of Human
Rights, Challenges of Democratization, Revolution, and Chinese Politics. His
recent books include Chinese Village, Socialist State (Yale, 1991), The Politics of
Democratization: Generalizing East Asian Experiences (1994), National Identity
and Democratic Prospects in Socialist China (1995) and What if China doesn't
Democratize? Implications for War and Peace (2000). Revolution, Resistance and
Reform in Village China (Yale) is forthcoming.
Power_of_Ideas_Frontmatter.fm Page viii Wednesday, September 21, 2005 12:43 PM
Contributors ix
Carol Lee Hamrin is a Chinese affairs consultant, as well as a research
professor at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia, where she is
working with the Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution (ICAR) and
the Center for Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (CAPEC). She also serves
as a Senior Associate with several non-profit organizations supporting
research and social services in China. Carol was the senior China research
specialist at the Department of State for 25 years, and has taught at The Johns
Hopkins University (School of Advanced International Studies). She has
published several books, including Decision-making in Deng’s China and
China and the Challenge of the Future, and many book chapters and journal
articles. Dr Hamrin’s current research interests include the development of
the non-profit, non-governmental sector; cultural change, human rights and
religious policy and indigenous resources for conflict management.
Saliha Hassan is an associative professor at the Political Science Programme
and an associate fellow at the Institute of Malaysian and International
Relations Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia. Her main area
of research is political development in Malaysia with a focus on the
dynamics of democratization as played out in the context of Malaysian civil
society. Her latest publication is Social Movements in Malaysia: From Moral
Communities To NGOs (RoutledgeCurzon 2003), which she co-edited with
Meredith L. Weiss.
Baogang He (BA, Hangzhou University, 1981; MA, People’s University of
China, Beijing, 1986; PhD, ANU, Australia, 1993) is currently senior research
fellow, East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore and reader at
the School of Government, the University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia. Dr
He is the author of The Democratization of China (New York and London:
Routledge, 1996, 1998, 2000), The Democratic Implication of Civil Society in
China (London: Macmillan, New York: St. Martin, 1997), Nationalism, National
Identity and Democratization in China (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000, with Yingjie
Guo), and Between Democracy and Authority: An Empirical Study of Village
Election in Zhejiang, (Wuhan: Central China Normal University Press, 2002,
with Lang Youxing). He has also published many book chapters and journal
articles. Dr He was awarded the Mayer prize by the Australia Political
Science Association in 1994 for the best article published in the Australian
Journal of Political Science. He has been awarded Australian Research Council
(ARC) large grants, and five ARC small grants. This current work stems from
an ARC-funded project and a National University of Singapore-funded
project.
Thomas Heberer is professor of Political Science/East Asian Politics at
University of Duisburg, Germany. He has worked as a translator and reader
at the Foreign Language Press in Peking from 1977 to 1981. Since the early
Power_of_Ideas_Frontmatter.fm Page ix Wednesday, September 21, 2005 12:43 PM
x The Power of Ideas
1980s, he periodically has conducted field research in China, e.g. on
nationalities policy, on the individual economy, on rural urbanization and
social change, and on private entrepreneurs and their social and political
function. Major book publications since the 1990s include Corruption in
China. Analysis of a political, economic and social problem (in German, Opladen:
Westdeutscher Verlag, 1991); Mao Zedong, the immortal revolutionary,
(Hamburg 1995: Institute of East Asian Affairs); ed. together with K.K. Vogel,
in German, Political Participation of Women in East Asia (Hamburg 1997); in
German, co-author W. Taubmann, Transformation of China’s Rural Society:
Urbanization and socio-economic change in the countryside (Opladen:
Westdeutscher Verlag, 1998); in German, Entrepreneurs as Strategic Groups.
Social and Political Function of Private Entrepreneurs in China and Vietnam,
(Hamburg: Institute of East Asian Affairs, 2001); in German, Falungong:
Religion, Sect or Cult? A ‘Salvation Community’ as a Manifestation of
Modernization Problems and Processes of Social Alienation (Jena: IKS Garamond,
2001; and Private Entrepreneurs in China and Vietnam – Social and Political
Functioning of Strategic Groups (Leiden: Brill, 2003).
Sunhyuk Kim is assistant professor in the Department of Political Science at
the University of Southern California, Los Angeles. He was a research
professor at the Asiatic Research Center at Korea University, Seoul, during
the 2002–2003 academic year and served as the Research Director of the
Pacific Council on International Policy’s recent project on Korea, ‘The
Reshaping of Korea’. His research interests include democratization, civil
society, political economy, state-society relations, and social movements in
Korea. Dr Kim’s recent publications include The Politics of Democratization in
Korea: The Role of Civil Society; The Politics of Economic Reform in Korea; The
Political Origins of South Korea’s Economic Crisis; Democratization and
Environmentalism; The Politics of Dual Transition in South Korea; and Civic
Mobilization for Democratic Reform.
Lee Lai To is Head of the Department of Political Science as well as
Academic Convenor of the Master of Social Sciences (International Studies)
Programme at the National University of Singapore. Dr Lee – who has
written and lectured internationally and regionally on Chinese politics, the
South China Sea conflicts, cross-strait relations and Asia-Pacific security –
has also been taking part in many of the academic and Track Two conferences
on regional and international affairs. His publications include nine books
(three solely authored and six edited or co-edited), numerous articles in
international and regional journals, and a large number of conference papers
and chapters in books.
Patrick Raszelenberg studied Philosophy, Political Science and Philology
in Munich, Madrid and Boston. In 1991–1993, he was research fellow at
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Contributors xi
the Institute of Asian Affairs in Hamburg. In 1993–1996, he stayed in
Vietnam. In 1996–1998, he studied East Asian Studies in Cambridge, MA.
In 1999–2002, he was a research fellow at the Institute for East Asian
Studies at Duisburg University.
Nora Sausmikat has degrees in Sinology, Anthropology, and Theatre
Science. She was a research fellow with the University of Duisburg,
Germany, and is currently working for the Federal German Culture
Foundation in Beijing, China. Her PhD thesis was on the perception of the
Chinese Cultural Revolution in women’s narrated life stories. She has
written extensively in German and English on women’s studies, history of
Chinese intellectuals, political reform movements and contemporary
Chinese theatre.
Gunter Schubert is professor for Sinology with the University of Tuebingen,
Germany. Research Fields: Chinese Politics, East Asian Security, Comparative Research on Democratization, Nationalism. Main publications: Chinas
Kampf um die Nation: Dimensionen nationalistischen Denkens in der VR China,
Taiwan und Hongkong an der Jahrtausendwende (China’s Struggle for the
Nation: Dimensions of Nationalist Thought in the People’s Republic of
China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong at the Turn of the 21st Century, Institute for
Asian Studies Special Series No. 357, Hamburg 2002); Taiwan – Die chinesische
Alternative. Demokratisierung in einen ost-asiatischen Schwellenland, 1986–1993
(Taiwan – The Chinese Alternative. Democratization in an East Asian Newly
Industrializing Country, Institute of Asian Studies Special Series No. 237,
Hamburg 1994); Blockierte Demokratien in der Dritten Welt (Defunct Democracies in the Third World, Opladen: Leske + Budrich, 1998, co-edited with Rainer Tetzlaff); Menschenrechte in Ostasien (Human Rights in East Asia,
Tübingen: Mohr–Siebeck 1999).
Carlyle A. Thayer is professor of Politics at the Australian Defence Force
Academy. He is presently on secondment to Deakin University as their
Academic Co-ordinator at the Centre for Defence and Strategic Studies, Australian Defence College. Professor Thayer has been working on Vietnamese
politics for over three decades. He has published extensively on Vietnamese
domestic and foreign policy. He is the author of War By Other Means: National
Liberation and Revolution in Vietnam (1989); The Vietnam People’s Army Under
Doi Moi (1994); Beyond Indochina, Adelphi Paper 297 (1995); co-author of
Soviet Relations with India and Vietnam (1992), and co-editor of Vietnam and the
Rule of Law (1993) and Vietnamese Foreign Policy in Transition (1999).
Martina Timmermann is Academic Programme Officer and Director of
Studies on Human Rights and Ethics with theUnited Nations University in
Tokyo, Japan. She was also the head of a research project on “The Human
Power_of_Ideas_Frontmatter.fm Page xi Wednesday, September 21, 2005 12:43 PM
Rights Politics of Japan, Indonesia and the Philippines: Mirror of ‘Asian
Identity’?” at the Institute of Asian Affairs, Hamburg In the realm of ASEM
IV (2002), she was one of two German delegates to the expert meeting on
Gender at the Asia–Europe Dialogue in Finland. Among several articles on
regional cooperation in Southeast Asia, human rights and gender politics,
she has published The Power of Collective Thought Patterns: Values, Change and
Political Culture in Japan and the United States, Opladen 2000.
Gabriele Vogt is a research fellow for Political Science with the German
Institute for Japanese Studies. She was a visiting scholar at Cornell University
in 2003–2004 and has a PhD in Japanese Science from the University of
Hamburg in 2002, MA in Japanese Science, Political Science and Sociology
from University of Munich in 1998. Field of expertise: community-based
political action, Okinawa’s role in Japan. Major publications: Die Renaissance
der Friedensbewegung in Okinawa (forthcoming, München: Iudicium). “Alle
Macht dem Volk? Das direktdemokratische Instrument als Chance für das
politische System Japans”, Japanstudien 2001 (13): 319–342
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Claudia Derichs and Thomas Heberer
The “Asian crisis” of the late 1990s is over. What has been left? Economically,
the region has recovered. In foreign policy, attention has turned towards fighting international terrorism. Regional politics has been challenged by pandemics such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) or avian flu, which,
interestingly enough, had a greater effect on regional cooperation than the
financial crisis of 1997/98. In the meantime, significant domestic political
changes have taken place in almost all countries of East and Southeast Asia,
the effects of which are now beginning to develop clear contours. The future
course of the Asian crisis notwithstanding, we believe that the discourse on
the political future in East and Southeast Asia that was set in motion during
the late 1990s is an expression of growing democratic self-consciousness and
self-assertiveness among the political and intellectual elite.
“Reform” and “change” were the buzzwords of political debate during
the crisis. Consequently, the movements for political change in Indonesia
and Malaysia became known as the Reformasi movements. In other countries,
the reform debate took place in a less turbulent manner, but nonetheless with
a clear promotion of change-oriented interests. In this volume, seventeen
authors have attempted to discern how the Asian crisis has promoted a new
political discourse in the region and in which direction this discourse is
heading. Propositions made by social actors (intellectuals and nongovernment organizations [NGOs]) and the push effects they can have on
state actions are central issues of discussion. The political aspect here is the
political propositions that are intended to change the rules and forms of
politics without calling the existing system of government itself into
question. Less concern is given to the radical “dissident level”.
The editors of this volume are quite aware that in every society the
“production of discourse” is not free and unplanned but controlled, selected,
organized and channelled, and in consequence only certain ideas achieve
prominence and can develop push effects. Such discourses, however, reflect
a particular and quite significant segment of politically interested public
opinion. In addition to such political propositions, discourses also have high
conflict potential because they imply an element of change.
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2 The Power of Ideas
Discourses in the arena of politics do not surface by themselves. They are
fed with ideas that are picked up for discussion, exchanged, altered and
repeated, or discarded. Ideas get the discourse off the ground and make up
its core nourishment. They are carried and brought into discussion by idea
providers – mostly intellectuals. Discourses, ideas and intellectuals form
three moving legs of a triangle. How fast they are allowed to move, how far
they can move and whether they have a chance to enter the space of political
decision-making, are questions that have not been attended to intensively
with regard to the region of East and Southeast Asia.
In this volume, the movement of change-oriented ideas and the role of
intellectuals within the arena of political discourse will be analysed in the case
of two authoritarian states (China and Vietnam), a multi-ethnic, formally democratic state with strong authoritarian leanings (Malaysia) and two democratic
states with significant parochial structures and patterns of behaviour (South
Korea and Japan). The selection corresponds to the following categories of
strong state formations: communist, neo-patrimonial and developmental. It
also corresponds to the fact that the different political and economic situations
of the countries involved have affected different forms of suffering from the
crisis – a fact that should not be completely neglected when comparing them.
REGIONAL SIMILARITIES AND TRANSNATIONAL
PROCESSES IN THE DISCOURSE ON
DEMOCRATIZATION
The belief is strong that the future of regional political systems lies in the
expansion of democracy. Yet there are several gradations of colour in the
understanding of democracy, with some voices tilting towards an
appropriation of Western institutions, and others espousing a synthesis of
Western and indigenous patterns.1
Primarily, traditional and participationinducing institutions like village elections (China, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia
and Thailand) or particular political ideas and features of a specific political
culture (like particular forms of criticism of government, the state’s obligation
to serve the general good and specific egalitarian concepts of mankind and
society) are regarded as “indigenous”. Chih-Yu Shih refers to “collective
forms” of democracy in East Asia, as opposed to western, individual forms of
democracy. Such “collective forms” apparently correspond to the East Asian
cognitive identity and aim to protect collective interests.2
CONCEPTS OF CHANGE AND DEMOCRACY
Within the political structures, ideas and traditions of Asia, there are factors
that can be regarded as “democratic” or favourably inclined towards
democratic elements. The use of the “western” term democracy would seem
here to be questionable, because although there are certain ideal concepts of
dialogue between leaders and followers and certain types of participation,
these rights are not institutionalized and enforceable. The democratic
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