Tài liệu OCEAN MANAGEMENT IN GLOBAL CHANGE potx

OCEAN MANAGEMENT IN GLOBAL

CHANGE

To commemorate

the Quincentenary of the Discovery of the Americas

the Twentieth Anniversary of the United Nations

Conference on the Human Environment

the Tenth Anniversary of the United Nations

Convention on the Law of the Sea

Published with the collaboration of

ENTE COLOMBO ’92, Genoa, Italy

OCEAN MANAGEMENT

IN GLOBAL CHANGE

Edited by

PAOLO FABBRI

University of Bologna,

Italy

ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE

London and New York

1992

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD

Crown House, Linton Road, Barking, Essex IG11 8JU, England

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of

thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

WITH 19 TABLES AND 72 ILLUSTRATIONS

© 1992 ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD

CIP Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0-203-21363-7 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-27045-2 (Adobe eReader Format)

ISBN 1-85166-868-3 (Print Edition)

Library of Congress CIP data applied for

No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or

property

as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any

methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein.

Special regulations for readers in the USA

This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem,

Massachusetts. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which

photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright

questions, including

photocopying outside the USA, should be referred to the publisher.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,

or

otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

FOREWORD

The Celebrations of the Quincentenary of the Discovery of the Americas

and their Scientific Events

Ente Colombo ’92 was created with the task of organizing the

Celebrations of the Quincentenary of the Discovery of the Americas. This

body decided on an International Specialized Exhibition, ‘Christopher

Columbus: Ships and the Sea’, to be flanked by a series of scientific events

at a sufficiently distinguished level to be able to discuss, authoritatively, the

evolution of sea uses and the consequent need to protect the marine

environment.

It was decided to programme these events during the central part of the

Celebrations and so, during the week entitled ‘Man and the Sea’, three

international conferences on ocean management, the law of the sea

(annual Conference of the Law of the Sea Institute) and legal maritime

subjects (conference of Unidroit and Comité Maritime International)

respectively are to be held in Genoa.

The event on ocean management was organized by Ente Colombo ’92

with the co-operation of the United Nations Office for Ocean Affairs and

the Law of the Sea and was devoted to Ocean Management in Global

Change. Its aim is to deal with the evolution of the objectives and

methodologies of coastal and ocean management, with special emphasis on

the relationships between resource development and environmental

protection and, as a result, establishing close topical links with the United

Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro,

June 1992).

In order to give the greatest opportunities for scientific communication

and discussion at this Conference, two books have been published. This

present volume contains the lectures presented at the Conference; Sea

Management: A Theoretical Approach, written by Adalberto Vallega, the

scientific co-ordinator of the Conference, deals with the theoretical

background and practical implications of coastal and ocean management.

On behalf of Ente Colombo ’92 I express my gratitude to the UN

Office for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, as well as to all those who

have offered their co-operation and moral support to the Conference, in

the fervent hope that it will contribute to the improvement of sea resource

development and environmental protection.

ROMANO MERLO

Mayor of Genoa

President, Ente Colombo ’92

vi

PREFACE

The International Conference on Ocean Management in Global Change

The evolution of coastal and ocean management is worth considering in

the light of (i) the principles of environmental protection established by

the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm,

1972) and the subsequent action developed by the United Nations and its

organizations, (ii) the legal frameworks provided by the United Nations

Conference on the Law of the Sea (1982), (iii) the recently implemented

efforts to encourage multidisciplinary approaches to environmental change

and, finally, (iv) the impetus given by the United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development (1992) to the implementation of the

rationale in resource use and environmental management.

This background supports both the subject area and the whole approach

to be developed by the International Conference on Ocean Management

in Global Change (Genoa, 22–26 June 1992), the main objectives of

which are (i) to examine present and expected trends in coastal and ocean

resource use, (ii) to evaluate the state of the art and the expected evolution

in theory and practice of management and (iii) to discuss scientific and

technological developments and their impacts on management.

On this basis it was thought that the Conference should have to

produce (i) general views of the evolution of coastal and ocean management

with the aim of putting into evidence their theoretical background and

methodologies, as well as drafting short- and medium-term prospects, and,

in this context, (ii) should deal with crucial issues, such as the relationships

between sea resource development and environmental protection, taking

into account (iii) relevant case studies and (iv) coastal and ocean areas

worthy of special attention.

The Conference benefits from co-operation between scientists from

various disciplines—such as oceanography, ecology, law, economics,

geography—and distinguished experts in coastal and ocean management.

Their lectures are collected in this book, edited by Paolo Fabbri, of the

University of Bologna, Italy.

The lectures are concerned with the history, theory, practice and the

expected evolution of coastal and ocean management, the physical changes

in oceans and the subsequent research undertaken, key marine policy

problems and the role of national jurisdictional belts, conflict management

and environmental protection and preservation, the role of coastal and

ocean management for development purposes, the specific features of the

management of special coastal (waterfronts, estuaries and lagoons) and

ocean (enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, polar seas) areas. This framework

was conceived with the United Nations Office for Ocean Affairs and the

Law of the Sea, in the context of which the objectives of the Conference

and their background, as well as the preliminary descriptions of sessions

and lectures, were extensively discussed and formulated.

We are very grateful to the members of the UN Office—especially to

Moritaka Hayashi and Stella Maris Vallejo—for the encouraging

atmosphere they created for scheduling this initiative and the help they

have given towards its scientific conduct. Gratitude is also expressed to

Ente Colombo ’92, which decided to give such a strong impetus to the

scientific events supporting the Celebrations of the Quincentenary of the

Discovery of the Americas, and to Alberto Bemporad, the Commissioner

General of the International Specialized Exhibition ‘Christopher

Columbus: Ships and the Sea’. Finally, acknowledgements are expressed to

Paolo Fabbri, the editor of the volume, to the Scientific Organizing

Committee of the Conference composed of Francesco Bandarin, Giuliano

Fierro, Maria Giuseppina Lucia and Giovanni Rildolfi, as well as to the

staff of the Technical Scientific Committee, constituted by Elisabetta

Dettori and Paola Schiavo.

ADALBERTO VALLEGA

Scientific Co-ordinator

International Conference on

Ocean Management in Global Change

GIORGIO DORIA

Co-ordinator

Technical Scientific Committee

Ente Colombo ’92

viii

CONTENTS

Foreword v

Preface vii

History of Ocean Management

Alastair D.Couper

1

Theory of Ocean Management

Hance D.Smith

17

Ocean Management in Practice

Gerard Peet

36

Sea-Level Rise and its Implications in Coastal Planning and

Management

Dallas L.Peck and S.Jeffress Williams

52

Impact of Ocean Circulation on Regional and Global Change

André Guilcher

74

The Impacts of Sea Level Rise on Coral Reefs and Reef Islands

Eric C.F.Bird

91

Ocean Sciences and Management

André Vigarié

104

Remote Sensing in Ocean Management

Renato Herz

123

Information and Data Processing for Ocean Management

Adam Cole-King and Chandra S.Lalwani

135

Integrated Marine Policies: Goals and Constraints

Stella Maris A.Vallejo

157

From Coastal to Ocean Management: Policies and Planning

Issues

Paolo Fabbri

177

National Ocean Policy in the United States: Less than the Sum

of its Parts

Robert W.Knecht

190

The Role of National Jurisdictional Zones in Ocean

Management

Moritaka Hayashi

211

Boundaries and Ocean Management

Victor Prescott

232

The Community Fisheries Policy

Daniel Vignes

249

A Review of Disputed Maritime Areas in Southeast Asia

Phiphat Tangsubkul

255

Multiple Use Conflicts and their Resolution: Toward a

Comparative Research Agenda

Biliana Cicin-Sain

285

Comparative Evaluation in Managing Conflicts: Lessons from

the North Sea Experience

Patricia Birnie

309

The Protection of the Marine Environment: A Key Policy

Element

Lee A.Kimball

329

The Protection and Development of the Marine Environment:

UNEP’s Oceans and Coastal Areas Programme

Stjepan Keckes

346

Special Areas and Particularly Sensitive Areas

Jon Wonham

363

Ocean Fisheries Management: The FAO Programme

S.M.Garcia

381

Seaport Management and Navigation

Ugo Marchese

428

Coastal Management in Ecuador

Luis Arriaga M.

446

Coastal Management in China

Ying Wang

469

Small Island States and Huge Maritime Zones: Management

Tasks in the South Pacific

Hanns Buchholz

480

Urban Waterfront Management: Historical Patterns and

Prospects

D.A.Pinder and B.S.Hoyle

493

x

Estuaries: Challenges for Coastal Management

Norbert P.Psuty

517

Complexity of Coastal Lagoons Management: An Overview

S.Guillaume F.Zabi

535

The Management of Enclosed and Semi-Enclosed Seas

Lewis M.Alexander

553

The Arctic Ocean

H.Jesse Walker

562

Management of the Southern Ocean Resources and

Environment

Juan Carlos M.Beltramino

596

Future Challenges in Ocean Management: Towards Integrated

National Ocean Policy

Edward L.Miles

616

Index of Contributors 644

xi

HISTORY OF OCEAN

MANAGEMENT

ALASTAIR D.COUPER

University of Wales,

Cardiff

ABSTRACT

Elements of present-day sea use management have evolved over a long

period. Basic to these are the principles of freedom of the seas, open access

to resources, and sectoral management. There is, however, a necessary

corrective to this Euro-centric view when the relationships between people

and the marine environment are examined in several other cultures. Open

access in Western society has experienced more recent restrictions as

resource scarcities have arisen and new technological capacities have

increased. However, ocean management policies have continued within

the spatial framework of freedom of the seas for fishing beyond national

jurisdiction and the marine transport sector. The paper traces these aspects

historically and also the emergence of new concepts, which have become

progressively more multi-disciplinary as inter-sectoral problems have

appeared. Similarly, United Nations global policies stand in constrast to the

persistence of national sectoral management approaches. It is concluded

that very recent developments have now created opportunities for more

integrated ocean management to emerge.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of ocean management, in the sense of exercising some form

of centralised control over multiple uses of a sea area, is a product of the

late 20th Century. It emerged at a time when there was increased concern

for the health of the oceans, a greater awareness of the need to allocate

national rights over ocean space and resources, requirements to regulate

human activities at sea, and the need to resolve inter-territorial conflicts.

Unlike land use management, ocean management is complicated by the

fluidity of the medium, its three-dimensional parameters, mobility of

many resources and activities, the complexity of interacting ecosystems,

and the lack of relevance of administrative boundaries to the natural

environment.

Ocean management is also bedeviled by inheritances from the past in

custom, law (and lack of it), the perceptions of land-minded

administrators, and by powerful global military interests.

What may now be understood by ocean management, if current views

are pulled together, is methodology through which sectoral activities

(navigation, fishing, mining, dumping, etc.) and environmental quality in

a sea area are considered as a whole, and their uses optimised in order to

maximise net benefits to a nation, but without prejudicing local

socioeconomic interests or jeopardising benefits to future generations. This

must involve assessments, priorities, allocations and regulations. Overall

optimisation of uses in this way is a difficult objective and, it may be

asserted, perhaps an unattainable one. An alternative to this and to central

management is simply sectoral management within national sea areas, with

linking mechanisms capable of resolving inter-sectoral, social welfare, and

inter-territorial conflicts as these appear.

Whether a centralised management approach should, or can, be

adopted, or merely ad-hoc approaches used, is still open to debate. What is

generally agreed, is the need for a policy which has as its foundation the

recognition that many activities at sea are inter-connected, and as sea uses

increase conflicts arise. The requirement for policies based on the various

degrees of functional integration in the marine environment was

emphasised in the preamble to the 1982 United Nations Convention on

the Law of the Sea, which…“recognises that the problems and

opportunities of ocean space are closely inter-related and need to be

considered as a whole” (1).

In a subsequent report of the Secretary General it was stated:

A fundamental requirement for the development and use of national

off-shore marine resources is a national policy that establishes goals,

objectives and priorities and lays down basic principles and criteria

which provide guidance for the formulation of plans and

programmes and a marine development strategy (2).

2 OCEAN MANAGEMENT IN GLOBAL CHANGE

It is not the purpose of this introductory paper to elaborate on these goals

and the ways of achieving them. This will be done by

subsequent contributions. What is intended here, is to consider how we

reached the present levels of thinking, and to identify what concepts and

practices have been inherited from the past in our current approaches to

ocean management.

THE CONCEPTUAL INHERITANCE

Before multiple activities in sea areas can be managed, it is clearly necessary

to establish who has the authority for making rules and setting priorities

within a specified space, and what the law is with regard to resource

ownership and access. In these respects, it is recalled here that some of the

basic concepts which enter into present-day discussions and legislation are

derived from much earlier periods. The most fundamental of these is the

concept of freedom of the sea, and its related systems of coastal state and

off-shore user rights.

Attempts to control ocean space and the uses of the sea by maritime

powers go back to at least Roman times(3). By far the most ambitious

attempt, and never to be surpassed in its magnitude, was the action by

Spain after the 1492 voyage which we are now commemorating.

Following the report by Columbus of his explorations, Ferdinand and

Isabella were able to secure a Papal Bull from Pope Alexander VI in 1493.

This granted to Spain all discoveries lying to the West of a line drawn

through a point 100 leagues from any of the Azores or Cape Verdes. Noone

was to pass beyond this line, even for fishing, without permission of Spain

under pain of excommunication. It should be said that the Marine

Geographers Commission would not have awarded any prizes to the Pope

for this piece of delimitation, since there is a difference of 8° of longitude

between the extremes of the Azores and Cape Verde islands(4).

The positional anomaly was rectified in the following year when Spain

and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordessilas establishing a new line 370

leagues West of the Cape Verdes. This delimitation included a section of

what is now Brazil in the Portugese Eastern sector.

The division of the world ocean by Spain and Portugal was studiously

ignored by, amongst others, Henry VII of England who, in 1497, sent

the Genoese captain, John Cabot, on his historic voyage north-westward

from Bristol to North America. This was an important early lesson in

geopolitics, indicating that national claims to sea areas could not be

effective unless there was the naval capability to maintain them.

Considering the emerging knowledge of the real size of the global ocean in

HISTORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 3