Tài liệu Introduction and History of Cage Culture docx

1 Introduction and History of Cage Culture

Chua Thia Eng1 and Elsie Tech2

1Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA),

DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines; 2Asian Fisheries Society

25-A Mayaman Street, UP Village, Quezon City, Philippines

History of Cage Culture

Open sea activities, such as cage and pen

culture, are viewed by many stakeholders in

the industry as the aquaculture system of

the millennium. Fish production from cages

and pens (both in freshwater and marine

environments) contributes significantly to

total foodfish produced. Cage culture has

made possible the large-scale production of

commercial finfish and will probably be

the most efficient and economical way of

raising fish.

Aquaculturists realize the need to limit

further conversion of wetlands and man￾groves into traditional aquaculture farms.

We face a situation where even freshwater

ecosystems have reached critical levels

with respect to their carrying capacities.

The depletion of ocean and coastal fishery

resources in some areas has led to the

development of marine cage culture.

The earliest record of cage culture

practices dates back to the late 1800s in

Southeast Asia, particularly in the fresh￾water lakes and river systems of Kampuchea

(Coche, 1976; Pantulu, 1979; Beveridge,

1987). The fish cultured included snake￾heads (Channa spp.), catfishes (Pangasius

spp.) and gobies (Oxycleotris spp.). By 1995,

more than 5000 fish farmers were engaged

in cage culture in the Mekong river system

around Phnom Penh (Thana, 1995). There

were also reports of similar culture

practices in Indonesia in the 1920s and

1940s (Hickling, 1962).

Marine fish farming in cages traces its

beginnings to the 1950s in Japan where fish

farming research at the Fisheries Laboratory

of the Kinki University led to the com￾mercial culture of the yellowtail, Seriola

quinqueradiata. Takashima and Arimoto

(2000), however, traced back a history of 200

years where wooden farm net cages were

being operated for anchovies or sardines or

bait for skipjack. Similar cages were later

used for yellowtail culture in Japan and

developed into a significant industry as

early as 1960. The cage culture of common

carp (Cyprinus carpio) in lakes also started

at this time (Kuronuma, 1968). Since the

1970s, Thailand has developed cage culture

techniques for two important marine finfish:

the seabream (Pagrus major) and grouper

(Epinephelus spp.) (Coche, 1976). Chua and

Teng (1978) pioneered the development of

cage culture methods/designs for groupers

in Malaysia, although large-scale cage farm￾ing in marine waters really gained ground in

the 1980s and in inland waters in the 1990s

(Shariff and Nagaraj, 2000). Korea started

growing a European variety of common carp

and maintained yellowtail in holding cage

enclosures in the late 1970s. By the end

of 1980, cage culture of the olive flounder

(Paralichthys olivacens) and black rockfish

©CAB International 2002. Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture

(eds P.T.K. Woo, D.W. Bruno and L.H.S. Lim) 1

(Sebastes schlegeli) was established, and

developed into a successful aquaculture

industry in the 1990s (Kim, 2000). Cage

culture of groupers (Epinephelus spp.) in the

Philippines has been practised since the

1980s. Mariculture of milkfish in the 1990s

led to the further growth and development of

the industry (Marte et al., 2000).

In Europe, cage culture of rainbow trout

(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in fresh water began

in the late 1950s and, in Norway, Atlantic

salmon (Salmo salar) followed in the 1960s.

More than 40% of its rainbow trout comes

from freshwater cages (Beveridge, 1987).

Salmonid culture is currently dominated by

production from Norway, Scotland and

Chile. Cage culture of fish was adopted in the

USA in 1964 (Coche, 1976). Records show

commercial production of channel catfish

(Ictalurus punctatus) in freshwater cages

(Collins, 1970a,b, 1972; Trotter, 1970;

Bennet, 1971; Brett, 1974; Novotny, 1975).

Cage culture in Africa, however, is still

in its infant stage (ADB/NACA, 1998). In

Central Africa, there was no real practical

experience in cage culture before 1974.

Very limited observations were recorded for

Clarias lazera (de Kimpe and Micha, 1974).

Semi-intensive rearing was done in Lake

Victoria, Tanzania, using Nile tilapia

(Tilapia zillii) (Ibrahim et al., 1974).

Research initiatives on intensive production

of commercial sized Tilapia nilotica were

carried out in Lake Kossou, Ivory Coast

(Coche, 1974, 1975; Shehadeh, 1974). Cook

(1995) reported that it was only in the 1980s

that the potential of aquaculture in South

Africa gained grounds with respect to

becoming a viable commercial industry.

Freshwater aquaculture was limited to

availability of water while mariculture had

to rely on only 3000 km of coastlines (the

majority of which did not have sheltered

bays or lagoons). In the years that followed,

efforts were geared towards improvement in

the culture of tilapia and cage design (Coche,

1976).

Currently many fish species have been

cultivated in various designs and sizes of

cages in Asia, Europe and other parts of

the world (Table 1.1). Tilapia and carp pre￾dominate in freshwater cage culture in Asia,

while salmonids are commonly farmed in

Europe and the Americas.

2 T.E. Chua and E. Tech

Species cultured Country Reference

Anguillidae

Anguilla japonica (eel)

Bagridae

Mystus nemerus (mystid catfish)

Chanidae

Chanos chanos (milkfish)

Channidae

Channa macrocephalus

Channa micropeltes (snakehead)

Channa striatus

Giant snakehead

Characidae

Colossoma macropomum

(Amazonian fish tambaqui)

Cichlidae

Black tilapia

Oreochromis mortimeri

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)

China

Malaysia

Philippines

Thailand

Cambodia

Vietnam

Vietnam

Malaysia

Brazil

Malaysia

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe

Bangladesh

Malaysia

Yuan (1991)

Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)

Guerrero (1996); Ramos (1996); Bagarinao (1998);

Marte et al. (2000)

Lin (1990)

Thana (1995)

Pantulu (1976); Thuoc (1995)

Pantulu (1976); Thuoc (1995)

Ang et al. (1988)

Chellappa et al. (1995)

Ang et al. (1988)

Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)

Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)

Mazid (1995)

Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)

Table 1.1a. Major species of freshwater finfishes cultured in cages.

Introduction and History of Cage Culture 3

Species cultured Country Reference

Red tilapia

Sarotherodon aureus

Sarotherodon esculentus

Sarotherodon galilaeus

Sarotherodon mossambicus

Sarotherodon mossambicus ×

S. honorum (hybrid)

Sarotherodon niloticus

Sarotherodon spilirus niger (tilapia)

Tilapia

Tilapia

Tilapia

Tilapia heudeloti

Tilapia nilotica

Tilapia niloticus

Tilapia rendalli

Tilapia zillii

Clariidae

Clarias gariepinus

Clarias lazera (Nile catfish)

Clarias macrocephalus (catfish)

Cyprinidae

Abramis brana (bream)

Aristichthys nobilis (bighead carp)

Philippines

Thailand

Egypt

Malaysia

USA

El Salvador

Puerto Rico

USA

Tanzania

Nigeria

Philippines

Taiwan

Guatemala

USA

Sri Lanka

Ivory Coast

Nigeria

Kenya

Philippines

Brazil

Dominican

Republic

Togo

USA

Sierra Leone

Togo

Dominican

Republic

Nigeria

Colombia

Zimbabwe

Tanzania

Togo

Kenya

Nigeria

Vietnam

South Africa

Egypt

Thailand

Vietnam

Russia

Nepal

Santiago and Arcilla (1993); Lopez (1995)

Chiayvareesajja et al. (1990); Lin (1990)

Ishak and Hassanen (1987)

Ang et al. (1988)

Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972)

Bayne et al. (1976); Ramirez (1977); Sanchez

(1978); Street (1978)

Jordan and Pagan (1973); Miller and Ballantine

(1974)

Williams et al. (1974)

Ibrahim et al. (1976)

Konikoff (1975); Ita (1976)

Guerrero (1975); IFP (1976); Pantastico and Baldia

(1979)

Maruyama and Ishida (1976)

Bardach et al. (1972)

Suffern et al. (1978)

Anon. (1980); Muthukumarana and Wcerakoon

(1987)

Coche (1975, 1976, 1977, 1978); Campbell (1976);

Shehadeh (1976); de Kimpe (1978); Amoikon

(1987)

Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)

Haller (1974)

PCARRD (1981); Aragon et al. (1985); Guerrero

(1985, 1996)

FAO (1977)

Olivo (1987)

Issifou and Amegavie (1987)

McGinty (1991)

Iscandari (1987)

Issifou and Amegavie (1987)

Olivo (1987)

Ali (1987)

Patino (1976); McLarney (1978); Popma (1978)

Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)

Ibrahim et al. (1974)

Issifou and Amegavie (1987)

Haller (1974)

Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)

Tuan and Hambrey (2000)

Hoffman and Prinsloo (1992)

Ishak (1987)

Lin (1990)

Tuan and Hambrey (2000)

Ziliukiene (1994)

Swar and Pradhan (1992); Pradhan and Pantha

(1995)

Continued

4 T.E. Chua and E. Tech

Species cultured Country Reference

Carps

Carps

Carps

Cirrhinus microbis

Cirrhinus sp.

Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass

carp)

Cyprinids

Cyprinus carpio (common carp)

(mirror carp)

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix

(silver carp)

(Javanese carp)

Leptobarbus hoeveni (slender

carp/sultan fish)

Nile carp

River carp

Eleotridae

Goby

Oxyeleotris marmoratus (sand

goby)

Ictaluridae

Ictalurus punctatus (Channel

catfish)

Moronidae

Morone chryops × M. saxatilis

(sunshine bass)

Osphronemidae

Osphronemus gourami

(giant gouramy)

Malaysia

Philippines

Sri Lanka

India

Indonesia

Iran

Cambodia

Cambodia

Malaysia

Nepal

Sri Lanka

Vietnam

Egypt

Netherlands

India

Philippines

Poland

Russia

Nepal

Indonesia

Korea

Egypt

Israel

Turkey

Nepal

Egypt

India

Malaysia

Vietnam

Malaysia

Indonesia

Egypt

Malaysia

Malaysia

Thailand

Vietnam

USA

USA

Indonesia

Malaysia

Ang et al. (1988)

Fermin (1990); Marte et al. (2000)

Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)

Basavaraja (1994)

Costa-Pierce and Effendi (1988)

Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)

Thana (1995)

Thana (1995)

Ang et al. (1988)

Pradhan and Pantha (1995)

Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)

Lovatelli (1997)

Siemelink et al. (1982); Ishak (1987)

Huisman (1979)

Bandyopadhyay et al. (1991)

Lopez (1995)

Filipiak (1991); Mamcarz (1992)

Evtushenko (1994)

Pradhan and Pantha (1995)

Costa-Pierce and Roem (1990); Zainal et al.

(1990)

Kim et al. (1992)

Hamza (1996)

Viola and Lahav (1991); Wolhfarth and Moav

(1991)

Erden (1987)

Swar and Pradhan (1992); Pradhan and Pantha

(1995)

Hamza (1996)

Sivakami and Ayyappan (1991)

Ang et al. (1988)

Thuoc (1995); Lovatelli (1997)

Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)

Dahril and Ahmad (1990)

Hamza (1996)

Ang et al. (1988)

Ang et al. (1988)

Menasveta (2000)

Lovatelli (1997)

Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972); Collins

and Delmendo (1979); Parker (1988); Masser and

Duarte (1992); Burtle and Newton (1993); Webster

et al. (1994)

Kelly and Kohler, 1996; Pagan (1970); Suwanasart

(1971); Pagan-Font (1975)

Ang et al. (1988)

Ang et al. (1988)

Table 1.1a. Continued.