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Title: Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health

Author: George E. Waring

Release Date: October 4, 2006 [Ebook 19465]

Language: English

***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK

DRAINING FOR PROFIT, AND DRAINING FOR

HEALTH***

Draining for Profit, and Draining for

Health

by George E. Waring

Edition 1, (October 4, 2006)

New York

Orange Judd & Company,

245 Broadway.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by

ORANGE JUDD & CO.

At the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States

for this Southern District of New-York.

Lovejoy & Son,

Electrotypers and Stereotypers.

15 Vandewater street N.Y.

[003]

In presenting this book to the public the writer desires to say that,

having in view the great importance of thorough work in land

draining, and believing it advisable to avoid every thing which

might be construed into an approval of half-way measures, he

has purposely taken the most radical view of the whole subject,

and has endeavored to emphasize the necessity for the utmost

thoroughness in all draining operations, from the first staking of

the lines to the final filling-in of the ditches.

That it is sometimes necessary, because of limited means,

or limited time, or for other good reasons, to drain partially or

imperfectly, or with a view only to temporary results, is freely

acknowledged. In these cases the occasion for less completeness

in the work must determine the extent to which the directions

herein laid down are to be disregarded; but it is believed that,

even in such cases, the principles on which those directions are

founded should be always borne in mind.

NEWPORT, R.I., 1867.

Illustrations

Fig. 1 - A DRY SOIL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Fig. 2 - A WET SOIL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Fig. 3 - A DRAINED SOIL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Fig. 4 - MAP OF LAND, WITH SWAMPS, ROCKS,

SPRINGS AND TREES. INTENDED TO REPRE￾SENT A FIELD OF TEN ACRES BEFORE DRAINING. 43

Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CON￾TOUR LINES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Fig. 6 - LEVELLING INSTRUMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Fig. 7 - LEVELLING ROD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Fig. 8 - MAP WITH CONTOUR LINES. . . . . . . . . . 48

Fig. 9 - WELL'S CLINOMETER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Fig. 10 - STONE PIT TO CONNECT SPRING WITH

DRAIN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Fig. 11 - STONE AND TILE BASIN FOR SPRING

WITH DRAIN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Fig. 12 - LINE OF SATURATION BETWEEN DRAINS. 59

Fig. 13 - HORSE-SHOE TILE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Fig. 14 - SOLE TILE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Fig. 15 - DOUBLE-SOLE TILE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Fig. 16 - ROUND TILE AND COLLAR, AND THE

SAME AS LAID. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Fig. 19 - THREE PROFILES OF DRAINS, WITH DIF￾FERENT INCLINATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Fig. 20 - MAP WITH DRAINS AND CONTOUR LINES. 97

Fig. 21 - PROFILE OF DRAIN C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Fig. 22 - SET OF TOOLS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Fig. 23 - OUTLET, SECURED WITH MASONRY AND

GRATING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

x Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health

Fig. 24 - SILT-BASIN, BUILT TO THE SURFACE. . . . 123

Fig. 25 - FINISHING SPADE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Fig. 26 - FINISHING SCOOP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Fig. 27 - BRACING THE SIDES IN SOFT LAND. . . . . 127

Fig. 28 - MEASURING STAFF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Fig. 29 - BONING ROD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Fig. 30 - POSITION OF WORKMAN AND USE OF

FINISHING SCOOP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Fig. 31 - SIGHTING BY THE BONING-RODS. . . . . . 131

Fig. 32 - PICK FOR DRESSING AND PREFORATING

TILE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Fig. 33 - LATERAL DRAIN ENTERING AT TOP. . . . . 139

Fig. 34 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF JOINT. . . . . . . . . . 139

Fig. 35 - SQUARE BRICK SILT-BASIN. . . . . . . . . . 140

Fig. 36 - SILT-BASIN OF VITRIFIED PIPE. . . . . . . . 141

Fig. 37 - TILE SILT-BASIN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Fig. 38 - MAUL FOR RAMMING. . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Fig. 39 - BOARD SCRAPER FOR FILLING DITCHES. . 147

Fig. 40 - CROSS-SECTION OF DITCH (FILLED), WITH

FURROW AT EACH SIDE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Fig. 41 - FOOT PICK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Fig. 42 - PUG-MILL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Fig. 43 - PLATE OF DIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Fig. 44 - CHEAP WOODEN MACHINE. . . . . . . . . . 190

Fig. 45 - MANDRIL FOR CARRYING TILES FROM

MACHINE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Fig. 46 - CLAY-KILN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Fig. 47 - DYKE AND DITCH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Fig. 48 - OLD STYLE HOUSE DRAINAGE AND

SEWERAGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Fig. 49 - MODERN HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEW￾ERAGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Contents

CHAPTER I. - LAND TO BE DRAINED AND THE

REASONS WHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER II. - HOW DRAINS ACT, AND HOW THEY

AFFECT THE SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

CHAPTER III. - HOW TO GO TO WORK TO LAY OUT

A SYSTEM OF DRAINS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

CHAPTER IV. - HOW TO MAKE THE DRAINS. . . . . 115

CHAPTER V. - HOW TO TAKE CARE OF DRAINS

AND DRAINED LAND. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

CHAPTER VI. - WHAT DRAINING COSTS. . . . . . . . 157

CHAPTER VII. - "WILL IT PAY?" . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

CHAPTER VIII. - HOW TO MAKE DRAINING TILES. . 183

CHAPTER IX. - THE RECLAIMING OF SALT

MARSHES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

CHAPTER X. - MALARIAL DISEASES. . . . . . . . . . 215

CHAPTER XI. - HOUSE DRAINAGE AND TOWN

SEWERAGE IN THEIR RELATIONS TO THE PUB￾LIC HEALTH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

[007]

CHAPTER I. - LAND TO BE

DRAINED AND THE REASONS

WHY.

Land which requires draining hangs out a sign of its condition,

more or less clear, according to its circumstances, but always

unmistakable to the practiced eye. Sometimes it is the broad

banner of standing water, or dark, wet streaks in plowed land,

when all should be dry and of even color; sometimes only a

fluttering rag of distress in curling corn, or wide-cracking clay,

or feeble, spindling, shivering grain, which has survived a pre￾carious winter, on the ice-stilts that have stretched its crown

above a wet soil; sometimes the quarantine flag of rank growth

and dank miasmatic fogs.

To recognize these indications is the first office of the drainer;

the second, to remove the causes from which they arise.

If a rule could be adopted which would cover the varied cir￾cumstances of different soils, it would be somewhat as follows:

All lands, of whatever texture or kind, in which the spaces

between the particles of soil are filled with water, (whether from

rain or from springs,) within less than four feet of the surface

of the ground, except during and immediately after heavy rains,

require draining.

Of course, the particles of the soil cannot be made dry, nor

should they be; but, although they should be moist themselves,

they should be surrounded with air, not with water. To illustrate

this: suppose that water be poured into a barrel filled with chips

2 Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health

of wood until it runs over at the top. The spaces between the

[008] chips will be filled with water, and the chips themselves will

absorb enough to become thoroughly wet;—this represents the

worst condition of a wet soil. If an opening be made at the

bottom of the barrel, the water which fills the spaces between the

chips will be drawn off, and its place will be taken by air, while

the chips themselves will remain wet from the water which they

hold by absorption. A drain at the bottom of a wet field draws

away the water from the free spaces between its particles, and its

place is taken by air, while the particles hold, by attraction, the

moisture necessary to a healthy condition of the soil.

There are vast areas of land in this country which do not

need draining. The whole range of sands, gravels, light loams

and moulds allow water to pass freely through them, and are

sufficiently drained by nature, provided, they are as open at the

bottom as throughout the mass. A sieve filled with gravel will

drain perfectly; a basin filled with the same gravel will not drain

at all. More than this, a sieve filled with the stiffest clay, if not

"puddled,"1 will drain completely, and so will heavy clay soils on

porous and well drained subsoils. Money expended in draining

such lands as do not require the operation is, of course, wasted;

[009] and when there is doubt as to the requirement, tests should be

made before the outlay for so costly work is encountered.

There is, on the other hand, much land which only by thorough￾1 —Puddling is the kneading or rubbing of clay with water, a process by

which it becomes almost impervious, retaining this property until thoroughly

dried, when its close union is broken by the shrinking of its parts. Puddled

clay remains impervious as long as it is saturated with water, and it does not

entirely lose this quality until it has been pulverized in a dry state.

A small proportion of clay is sufficient to injure the porousness of the soil

by puddling.—A clay subsoil is puddled by being plowed over when too wet,

and the injury is of considerable duration. Rain water collected in hollows of

stiff land, by the simple movement given it by the wind, so puddles the surface

that it holds the water while the adjacent soil is dry and porous.

The term puddling will often be used in this work, and the reader will

understand, from this explanation, the meaning with which it is employed.

3

draining can be rendered profitable for cultivation, or healthful

for residence, and very much more, described as "ordinarily dry

land," which draining would greatly improve in both productive

value and salubrity.

The Surface Indications of the necessity for draining are

various. Those of actual swamps need no description; those of

land in cultivation are more or less evident at different seasons,

and require more or less care in their examination, according to

the circumstances under which they are manifested.

If a plowed field show, over a part or the whole of its surface,

a constant appearance of dampness, indicating that, as fast as

water is dried out from its upper parts, more is forced up from

below, so that after a rain it is much longer than other lands

in assuming the light color of dry earth, it unmistakably needs

draining.

A pit, sunk to the depth of three or four feet in the earth, may

collect water at its bottom, shortly after a rain;—this is a sure

sign of the need of draining.

All tests of the condition of land as to water,—such as trial

pits, etc.,—should be made, when practicable, during the wet

spring weather, or at a time when the springs and brooks are

running full. If there be much water in the soil, even at such

times, it needs draining.

If the water of heavy rains stands for some time on the surface,

or if water collects in the furrow while plowing, draining is

necessary to bring the land to its full fertility.

Other indications may be observed in dry weather;—wide

cracks in the soil are caused by the drying of clays, which, by

previous soaking, have been pasted together; the curling of corn

often indicates that in its early growth it has been prevented, by a

wet subsoil, from sending down its roots below the reach of the

sun's heat, where it would find, even in the dryest weather, suffi- [010]

cient moisture for a healthy growth; any severe effect of drought,

except on poor sands and gravels, may be presumed to result