Tài liệu Conserving and Valuing Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity doc

Conserving and Valuing Ecosystem

Services and Biodiversity

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Conserving and Valuing Ecosystem

Services and Biodiversity

Economic, Institutional and Social

Challenges

Edited by K. N. Ninan

with foreword by Dr Achim Steiner

UN Under-Secretary General

and Executive Director

United Nations Environment Programme

Nairobi

publishing for a sustainable future

London • Sterling, VA

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First published by Earthscan in the UK and USA in 2009

Copyright © K. N. Ninan, 2009

All rights reserved

ISBN: 978-1-84407-651-2

Typeset by Domex e-data Pvt Ltd

Printed and bound in the UK by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham

Cover design by Rob Watts

For a full list of publications please contact:

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Earthscan publishes in association with the International Institute

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Conserving and valuing ecosystem services and biodiversity : economic, institutional,

and social challenges / [edited by] K. N. Ninan ; with foreword by Dr Achim Steiner.

p. cm.

ISBN 978-1-84407-651-2

1. Biodiversity conservation–Economic aspects. 2. Biotic communities–Economic

aspects.

3. Environmental degradation–Economic aspects. I. Ninan, K. N. (Karachepone

Ninan), 1950-QH75.C6817 2008

333.95'16–dc22

2008036285

The paper used for this book is FSC-certified. FSC (the Forest Stewardship Council) is

an international network to promote responsible management of the world’s forests.

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Dedicated

to

the memory of

my parents

Behanan and Annamma Ninan

and

aunts

Mary Ponnamma George

Elisabeth Baby Mathews

Who sacrificed their todays

to secure our tomorrows,

Who have now blended with nature,

that nurtures and sustains our lives

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Contents

List of Figures, Tables and Boxes xi

List of Contributors xv

Foreword xvii

Preface xxi

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xxv

1 Introduction 1

K. N. Ninan

PART 1 BIODIVERSITY, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

AND VALUATION

2 Total Economic Valuation of Endangered Species: A Summary

and Comparison of United States and Rest of the

World Estimates 25

Leslie Richardson and John Loomis

3 The Economics of Fish Biodiversity: Linkages between

Aquaculture and Fisheries – Some Perspectives 47

Clem Tisdell

4 Biodiversity Conservation in Sea Areas Beyond National

Jurisdiction: The Economic Problem 59

Charles Perrings

5 Making the Case for Investing in Natural Ecosystems as

Development Infrastructure: The Economic Value of

Biodiversity in Lao PDR 85

Lucy Emerton

6 Non Timber Forest Products and Biodiversity Conservation:

A Study of Tribals in a Protected Area in India 99

K. N. Ninan

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7 National Parks as Conservation and Development Projects:

Gauging Local Support 113

Randall A. Kramer, Erin O. Sills and Subhrendu K. Pattanayak

PART 2 INCENTIVES AND INSTITUTIONS

8 Payments for Ecosystem Services: An International Perspective 135

Jeffrey A. McNeely

9 Developing Mechanisms for In Situ Biodiversity Conservation

in Agricultural Landscapes 151

Unai Pascual and Charles Perrings

10 Institutional Economics and the Behaviour of Conservation

Organizations: Implications for Biodiversity Conservation 175

Clem Tisdell

PART 3 GOVERNANCE

11 An Ecological Economics Approach to the Management of a

Multi-purpose Coastal Wetland 195

R. K. Turner, I. J. Bateman, S. Georgiou, A. Jones, I. H. Langford,

N. G. N. Matias and L. Subramanian

12 East African Cheetah Management via Interacting Political

and Ecological Process Models 221

Timothy C. Haas

13 Co-management of Protected Areas: A Case Study from

Central Sulawesi, Indonesia 261

Regina Birner and Marhawati Mappatoba

PART 4 IPRS AND PROTECTION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

14 Intellectual Property Rights and Problems in the Protection of

Indigenous Knowledge: A Case Study of the Philippines

Legal Reforms 299

Timothy Swanson, Ray Purdy and Ana Lea Uy

15 Protecting Traditional Knowledge: A Holistic Approach Based on

Customary Laws and Bio-cultural Heritage 331

Krystyna Swiderska

viii Conserving and Valuing Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity

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PART 5 CLIMATE CHANGE, BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM

SERVICES

16 Adaptation to Climate Change and Livestock Biodiversity:

Evidence from Kenya 345

Jane Kabubo-Mariara

17 Socio-economic Impacts of Climate Change on Coastal

Ecosystems and Livelihoods: A Case Study of Southwestern

Cameroon 371

Ernest L. Molua

Index 393

Contents ix

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List of Figures, Tables and Boxes

FIGURES

1.1 Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, ecosystem

services and drivers of change 4

3.1 Global aquaculture production as a percentage of

global wild catch, 1950–2004 49

3.2 Global fish production, 1950–2004 50

3.3 China’s aquaculture production as a percentage of its

wild catch, 1950–2004 50

3.4 China’s fish production, 1950–2004 51

4.1 Regional seas and large marine ecosystems (LMEs) 61

4.2 Exploitation of LMEs 62

4.3 Export prices of oceanic species relative to prices of all

species caught, 1976–2004, US$ 64

4.4 Landings of deep-water species by ocean, 1950–2004 (tonnes) 65

5.1 Contribution of PA resources to household livelihoods 90

5.2 Contribution of biodiversity to national economic and

development indicators 91

5.3 Trends in donor funding to environment and biodiversity

in Lao PDR, 1996–2006 93

9.1 A framework of the linkages between biodiversity levels, flows of

ecological services and economic values in agricultural landscapes 157

10.1 Compromise of conservation goals as an option for a

conservation NGO 178

10.2 Efficient institutions and policies may not always be politically

acceptable 187

11.1 The Broads and its waterways 196

11.2 Pressures facing the Broads and consequent conflicts of use 198

11.3 Holiday visitor traffic flows to the Norfolk Broads, simulated

in a GIS 206

12.1 Schematic of the interacting IDs model of interacting

political and ecological processes 223

12.2 Kenya President group ID 229

12.3 Observed output actions of Kenyan groups 236

12.4 Observed output actions of Tanzanian groups 237

12.5 Observed output actions of Ugandan groups 238

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12.6 Kenyan group ID output action under βc values 240

12.7 Tanzanian group ID output action under βc values 241

12.8 Ugandan group ID output action under βc values 242

12.9 Kenyan group observed action–reaction pairs matched by the

IntIDs model 243

12.10 Tanzanian group observed action–reaction pairs matched by

the IntIDs model 244

12.11 Ugandan group observed action-reaction pairs matched

by the IntIDs model 245

13.1 Analytical framework of negotiated agreement on nature

conservation 269

17.1 Geographical location of Southwestern region of Cameroon 373

17.2 Mangroves in muddy ground in the coastal zone 376

17.3 Cameroon’s southwestern coast and relief 377

17.4 Fishing on the Cameroon Estuary 379

17.5 Management changes by households responding to climate

change expectations 383

17.6 Correlation of perception of climate change and adaptive response 383

TABLES

1.1 Main ecosystem types and their services 3

1.2 Estimated value of the world’s ecosystem services, 1997 8

1.3 Estimated ecosystem service value within templates for global

biodiversity conservation 9

2.1 Average WTP values per household based on payment frequency 28

2.2 Comparison of WTP values per household for a single species 31

2.3 US studies: Annual average WTP values per household based on

question format 33

2.4 Rest of the world studies: Annual average WTP values per

household based on question format 34

3.1 Aquaculture practices and their consequences for biodiversity loss 48

4.1 Regional fishery management organizations 69

4.2 GEF funding of global biodiversity conservation and international

waters, 1999–2003 (US$ million) 74

5.1 Socio-economic indicators for Houaphan Province, Lao PDR 88

6.1 Summary of the various NTFP benefits appropriated by the

local tribals of Nagarhole from Nagarhole National Park 103

6.2 NPV of NTFP benefits derived by sample tribal households of

Nagarhole from Nagarhole National Park in Rs per household

for cash flows summed up over 25 years at 1999 prices 105

6.3 Sensitivity analysis of the NPV of NTFP benefits derived by

the sample tribal households of Nagarhole from the Nagarhole

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National Park in Rs per household for cash flows summed up

over 25 years at 1999 prices 106

6.4 Net NTFP benefits excluding and including external costs 107

6.5 Estimated net NTFP benefits from Nagarhole National Park in

Rs and US$ per hectare per year 109

6.6 Maximum likelihood estimates using logit model of WTA

compensation (rehabilitation package) by sample tribal households

of Nagarhole National Park and relocate outside the park 111

7.1 Descriptive statistics for households at each park site 122

7.2 Model of support for the park 124

7.3 Predicting support at new parks 126

10.1 Matrix used to illustrate the incentives of NGOs to concentrate

on the promotion of the same species and the possible

shortcomings of this 185

10.2 Matrix to show a prisoners’ dilemma type problem and

failure of NGOs to promote biodiversity 186

10.3 Matrix to illustrate a coordination problem for NGOs 186

11.1 Potential performance indicators 199

11.2 Wetland functions and associated socio-economic benefits

in the Broads 201

11.3 Explanation of visitor arrival functions 205

11.4 Mean and median WTP for avoiding eutrophication damages 209

11.5 Non-user survey response rate by sample group 212

11.6 The present non-user’s benefits of preserving the present

condition of Broadland aggregated across Great Britain

using various procedures 214

12.1 Output actions and viable targets for the President ID 227

12.2 President DM-group input actions that change economic and/or

militaristic resource nodes 227

12.3 Artificial cheetah and herbivore count data 235

12.4 Consistency analysis agreement function values and bounds 238

12.5 Action and target match fractions 239

13.1 Overview of the agreement strategies of different NGOs 272

13.2 Characteristics of the case study villages 278

13.3 Characteristics of the sample households 278

13.4 Knowledge of respondents on community agreements

(% of respondents) 279

13.5 Depth of knowledge about agreement (% of respondents) 279

13.6 Participation in meetings related to the agreement 280

13.7 Characteristics of participants and non-participants 280

13.8 Reasons for non-participation 282

13.9 Source of knowledge about the agreement 282

13.10 Knowledge on sanctions 284

13.11 Advantages of forest protection mentioned by respondents 285

List of Figures, Tables and Boxes xiii

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13.12 Problems with National Park mentioned by respondents 286

16.1 Climate predictions of AOGCMs and SRES for 2000–2100 348

16.2 Predicted decadal average changes in annual climate

variables: 2050–2100 348

16.3 Average livestock holdings by agro-ecological zone 353

16.4 Annual livestock product sales and prices 354

16.5 Sample statistics for temperatures and precipitation by season 354

16.6 Ricardian regression estimates of the net value of livestock:

seasonal model 355

16.7 Ricardian regression estimates of the net sales of livestock products 357

16.8 Predicted damage in net livestock value from different

AOGCM scenarios 358

16.9 Predicted damage in net livestock revenue from different climate

scenarios 359

16.10 Probit model results (marginal effects) of whether or not to hold

livestock 361

16.11 Probit model results for choice of livestock species 362

16.12 Change in probabilities of selecting livestock biodiversity from

different climate scenarios 365

17.1 Sources of information on changing climate 381

17.2 Ordered probit maximum likelihood estimation: structural

form equations 386

APPENDIX FIGURES AND TABLES

Figures

A12.1 Group ID architecture 249

A12.2 East African cheetah support 255

Tables

A2.1 US WTP studies – threatened and endangered species 38

A2.2 Rest of the world WTP studies – threatened and endangered species 43

A4.1 Export value of fisheries by region, 1976–2004 (US$ million) 83

A12.1 Definition of symbols used to express the group ID’s

situation subID 248

A12.2 Definition of symbols used to express the group ID’s scenario subID 248

BOXES

13.1 The model of Empowered Deliberative Democracy 266

15.1 Collaborative research on TK protection and customary law 332

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