Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching (THE CAMBRIDGE APPLIED LINGUISTICS SERIES)

Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

THE CAMBRIDGE APPLIED LINGUISTICS SERIES

Series editors: Michael H. Long and Jack C. Richards

This series presents the findings of recent work in applied linguistics which are of

direct relevance to language teaching and learning and of particular interest to

applied linguists, researchers, language teachers, and teacher trainers.

In this series:

Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading edited by Patricia L. Carrell,

Joanne Devine, and David E. Eskey

Language Learning and Deafness edited by Michael Strong

The Learner-Centered Curriculum by David Hunan

Language Transfer - Cross-linguistic influence in language learning by Terence Odlin

Linguistic Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition edited by Susan M. Gass and

Jaquelyn Schachter

Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition by J. Michael O'Malley and

Anna Uhl Chamot

The Development of Second Language Proficiency edited by Birgit Harley,

Patrick Allen, Jim Cummins and Merrill Swain

Second Language Writing - Research insights for the classroom edited by Barbara Kroll

Genre Analysis - English in academic and research settings by John M. Swales

Evaluating Second Language Education edited by J. Charles Alder son and

Alan Beretta

Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar edited by Terence Odlin

Language Program Evaluation -Theory and practice by Brian K. Lynch

Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching edited by Sandra Lee McKay and

Nancy H. Hornberger

Contrastive Rhetoric - Cross-cultural aspects of second language writing by Vila Connor

Teacher Cognition in Language Teaching by Devon Woods

Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition edited by James Coady and Thomas Huckin

Text, Role, and Context - Developing Academic Literacies by Ann M. Johns

Immersion Education: International Perspectives edited by Robert Keith Johnson and

Merrill Swain

Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition edited by

Catherine Doughty and Jessica Williams

Exploring the Second Language Mental Lexicon by David Singleton

Researching and Applying Metaphor edited by Lynne Cameron and Graham Low

Interfaces Between Second Language Acquisition and Language Testing Research

edited by Lyle F. Bachman and Andrew D. Cohen

Culture in Second Language Teaching and Learning edited by Eli Hinkel

Network-based Language Teaching - Concepts and Practice edited by

Mark Warschauer and Richard Kern

Learning Vocabulary in Another Language by LS.P. Nation

Research Perspectives on English for Academic Purposes edited by John Flowerdew

and Matthew Peacock

Computer Applications in Second Language Acquisition by Carol A. Chapelle

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

Sociolinguistics and

Language Teaching

Edited by

Sandra Lee McKay

San Francisco State University

Nancy H. Hornberger

University of Pennsylvania

CAMBRIDGE

UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

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First published in print format

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ISBN-13 978-0-521-48434-3

ISBN-13 978-0-511-55118-5

© Cambridge University Press 1996

1996

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accurate or appropriate.

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Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

Contents

List of contributors vii

Series editors5

preface viii

Preface ix

Acknowledgments xii

I LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY 1

Chapter 1 Language attitudes, motivation, and standards 3

Mary McGroarty

Chapter 2 Societal multilingualism 47

Kamal K. Sridhar

Chapter 3 World Englishes 71

Braj B. Kachru and Cecil L, Nelson

Chapter 4 Language planning and policy 103

Terrence G. Wiley

II LANGUAGE AND VARIATION 149

Chapter 5 Regional and social variation 151

John R. Rickford

Chapter 6 Pidgins and Creoles 195

Patricia C. Nichols

Chapter 7 Language and gender 218

Rebecca Freeman and Bonnie McElhinny

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vi Contents

III LANGUAGE AND INTERACTION 281

Chapter 8 Ethnographic microanalysis 283

Frederick Erickson

Chapter 9 Interactional sociolinguistics 307

Deborah Schiffrin

Chapter 10 Intercultural communication 329

J. Keith Chick

IV LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 349

Chapter 11 The ethnography of communication 351

Muriel Saville-Troike

Chapter 12 Speech acts 383

Andrew D. Cohen

Chapter 13 Literacy and literacies 421

Sandra Lee McKay

CONCLUSION 447

Chapter 14 Language and education 449

Nancy H. Hornberger

Index 474

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

Contributors

J. Keith Chick, University of Natal, South Africa

Andrew D. Cohen, University of Minnesota

Frederick Erickson, University of Pennsylvania

Rebecca Freeman, University of Pennsylvania

Nancy H. Hornberger, University of Pennsylvania

Braj B. Kachru, University of Illinois, Urbana

Mary McGroarty, Northern Arizona University

Bonnie McElhinny, University of Toronto

Sandra Lee McKay, San Francisco State University

Cecil L. Nelson, Indiana State University

Patricia C. Nichols, San Jose State University, California

John R. Rickford, Stanford University, California

Muriel Saville-Troike, University of Arizona

Deborah Schiffrin, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.

Kamal K. Sridhar, State University of New York, Stonybrook

Terrence G. Wiley, California State University, Long Beach

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Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

Series editors' preface

While there are a number of useful introductions to sociolinguistics,

this book is unique in that it presents a coherent overview of the field of

sociolinguistics for second language teachers, focusing in particular on

issues likely to be of interest to language teachers and others interested

in the educational implications of sociolinguistic research. The editors

have employed a useful framework to elucidate the different levels of

interaction that are relevant in examining social dimensions of language

and language learning, one which contrasts macro and micro dimen￾sions of language use in contexts which range from international to

national, community, interpersonal, and personal.

Throughout the book, the contributors seek to broaden our under￾standing of how second language teaching and learning is related to a

broad range of factors including societal, political, cultural, psychologi￾cal, and interpersonal issues. These are shown to influence our concep￾tion of language, attitudes toward languages and their users, notions of

standards, appropriacy and politeness, and motivation to learn lan￾guages, as well as the choices we make when we communicate with

different people. Each chapter focuses on one important aspect of socio￾linguistic inquiry, examining the assumptions behind a particular ap￾proach, the research methods it makes use of, and the findings that have

emerged from it, and then explores implications for second language

teaching.

While sociolinguistics is not a field which seeks to inform classroom

methodology in language teaching directly, it plays a central role in

helping define the nature of language itself and, hence, in clarifying

what communicative competence in a second language entails. This

collection of papers will therefore be a valuable reference source for

teachers, teacher educators, graduate students, and others interested in

the relationship between the social context of language learning and

success in learning a second or third language.

Michael H. Long

Jack C. Richards

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Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

Preface

In many countries today, classrooms reflect a rich diversity of linguistic

backgrounds. Students bring to the classroom not only other lan￾guages but also different varieties of English and culturally learned

ways of using English. It is against this backdrop that teachers in gen￾eral, and language teachers specifically, face the challenging task of

respecting linguistic diversity while promoting common standards.

Central to fulfilling this task is an understanding of the relationship

between language and society, for it is the social context that both pro￾vides the conditions for linguistic diversity and reinforces the conven￾tions necessary to maintain linguistic standards. The purpose of this

book is to help language teachers and teachers of linguistically diverse

and multicultural classes gain an understanding of the many ways in

which language and society interact. It is addressed to pre-service and

in-service teachers, primarily teachers in ESL/EFL and bilingual class￾rooms, teachers of linguistically and culturally diverse classes, and for￾eign language teachers.

Deciding how to present a text dealing with the relationship between

language and society is problematic because some scholars in the field

emphasize the manner in which social and political forces influence

language use, often referred to as the sociology of language, whereas

others focus on how language and language use reflect the larger soci￾ety, at times referred to as sociolinguistics. In large part, the distinction

rests on whether one emphasizes the society or the language. In addi￾tion, some researchers emphasize the macrolevel of analysis, for exam￾ple, societal patterns of bilingualism, and others focus on the microlevel,

for example, forms of address in face-to-face interaction.

A major assumption of this text is that both perspectives and both

levels of analysis are critical for an understanding of the interaction

between language and society. In fact, we believe that it is helpful to

define the different areas of work in sociolinguistics by the intersection

of these perspectives and levels. That is, we suggest that it is useful to

distinguish between a macrolevel and a microlevel of social analysis and

a macrolevel and a microlevel of linguistic analysis. In dealing with the

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x Preface

social context, one can focus either on the larger context, like nations

and communities, or on the more limited context of a particular social

situation, with domains or communities of practice bridging macro to

micro. In dealing with linguistic concerns, one can examine larger is￾sues, like the choice of one language over another, or more specific

items, like the choice of one phonological feature over another, with

pragmatics or discourses bridging macro to micro. These distinctions

between perspectives and levels of analysis provide the basis for the

four major sections of the book, as shown below and described in the

following paragraphs.

Levels of Social Analysis

Macro

Micro

Macro

Language and society (Part 1)

Language attitudes, motivation,

and standard

Societal multilingualism

World Englishes

Language planning and policy

Language and variation (Part 2)

Regional and social variation

Pidgins and Creoles

Language and gender

Micro

Language and culture (Part 4)

Ethnography of communication

Speech acts

Literacy and literacies

Language and interaction (Part 3)

Ethnographic microanalysis

Interactional sociolinguistics

Intercultural communication

The chapters in Part 1, "Language and Society," deal with the man￾ner in which the larger social and political context affects language use

at a macrolevel. In general, language use is analyzed on a macrolevel,

with some of the issues being why a country might select one language

over another for its official language, what factors contribute to lan￾guage prestige, or what the emergence of a standard language implies

for other related varieties. The chapters in Part 2, "Language and

Variation," move to the microlevel of linguistic analysis and focus on

how the larger social context affects the particular linguistic forms that

an individual uses. One chapter, for example, examines how geographi￾cal region and social class influence the phonological, structural, and

lexical features of the language used, and another asks to what extent

societal norms are reflected in gender differences in discourse patterns

and interactional style. S|SA|BUV Otfsin6un jo s|9Ae-|

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Preface xi

In Part 3, "Language and Interaction/' the focus moves to the micro￾level of social as well as linguistic analysis. The chapters in this part

deal with how a specific social situation or role relationship influences

both verbal and nonverbal communication and vice versa. In Part 4,

"Language and Culture," the social level of analysis continues on the

microlevel, focusing on specific social situations and role relationships,

but the level of linguistic analysis is more macro, focusing on generaliza￾tions about the ways particular cultures and communities use and value

language. One emphasis of this part, for example, is on examining how

children in particular communities are socialized to use language and

literacy; another is on the range of linguistic, interactional, and cultural

knowledge language users must have in order to communicate appropri￾ately in particular contexts. The concluding chapter of the volume,

"Language and Education," attempts to draw together all the foregoing

chapters by examining how language, in all its societal, variational,

interactional, and cultural diversity, both influences and is influenced

by education.

Each part of the book begins with a brief introduction which dis￾cusses the focus of the part and relates it to other parts of the text. Each

chapter, written by a specialist in the area, provides an overview of

the issues addressed in the field and discusses typical methodological

approaches. Because this text is concerned with how sociolinguistic

research affects language teaching and the linguistically diverse class￾room, each chapter also includes a section that discusses the pedagogi￾cal implications of the issues discussed. Throughout, international as

well as national (i.e., United States) cases are cited in order to emphasize

the relevance of these issues for all global contexts. Finally, each chapter

closes with lists of suggestions for further reading and references.

We wish to thank all the contributors to this volume, who devoted

many hours to polishing their chapters, clearly demonstrating how the

research and major issues in their field have implications for the teach￾ing of English. Without their careful work and insights, this book would

not have been possible.

Sandra Lee McKay

Nancy H. Hornberger

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

Acknowledgments

The authors and publisher wish to thank the following for permission to reproduce

copyrighted material:

Figure 1, page 156: Reprinted from Kurath, H. (1949). A Word Geography of the

Eastern United States, Fig. 125. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. In

Reed, C. E. (1977). Dialects of American English, p. 99. Amherst, University of

Massachusetts Press. Figure 2, page 157: Reprinted by permission of the publishers

from Dictionary of American Regional English, Vol. I, Introduction and A-C, edited by Frederic G. Cassidy, Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknaps Press of Harvard

University Press, Copyright © 1985 by the President and Fellows of Harvard

College. Figure 3, page 158, and Figure 4, page 159: Reprinted from Kurath, H. (1949). A Word Geography of the Eastern United States, Figs. 42 and 3. Ann

Arbor: University of Michigan Press, © by the University of Michigan, 1949, 1977. Figure 5, page 160: Reprinted from Hughes, A., and Trudgill, P. (1979). English

Accents and Dialects, p. 33. London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. Figure 6, page 161: Reprinted from Agar, D. E. (1990). Sociolinguistics and Contemporary

French, p. 23. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Figure 7, page 162: Re- printed from Barbour, S., and Stevenson, P. (1990). Variations in German, p. 71. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Figure 8, page 164: Reprinted from

Wolfram, W. (1991). Dialects and American English, p. 87. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:

Prentice Hall. Based on Labov, W. (1991). "The Three Dialects of English," in

Eckert, P. (ed.). New Ways of Analyzing Sound Change. Orlando, Fla.: Academic

Press. Figure 9, page 168: Reprinted from Labov, W. (1972). Language in the

Inner City. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Originally in Labov, W. (1966). The Social Stratification of English in New York City. Washington, D.C.:

Center for Applied Linguistics. Table 1, page 169, and Figure 10, page 170:

Reprinted from Holmes, J. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Essex, England: Longman Group. Figure 11, page 171: Reprinted from Language and

Communication, Vol. 6, no. 3, John R. Rickford, "The Need for New Approaches

to Social Class Analysis in Sociolinguistics," pp. 215-221, Copyright 1986, with

kind permission from Elsevier Science Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidling- ton, OX5 1GB, UK. Figure 1, page 220: Reprinted from Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and Power (Language in Social Life Series), p. 25, Essex, England:

Longman Group. Figure 1, page 453: In Hornberger, N. (1989). "Continua of

Biliteracy," Review of Educational Research 59 (3). Copyright 1989 by the Ameri- can Educational Research Association. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Table 1, page 462, and Figure 2, page 463: Reprinted from Hornberger, N. (1991). "Extending Enrichment Bilingual Education: Revisiting Typologies and Redirecting

Policy." In Garcia, O. (ed.). Focus on Bilingual Education. Essays in Honor of

Joshua A. Fishman, Vol. 1. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

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PART I:

LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY

The chapters in this part explore how the larger social and political

context can affect social attitudes toward particular languages and

language varieties, as well as individual motivation to learn a language.

This part also examines the manner in which the social and political

context influences language use on a macrolevel as, for example, in the

designation of an official language or a bilinguaPs choice of language.

Taken together, all the chapters in Part I employ a macrolevel social and

linguistic analysis as they describe such concepts as linguistic standards,

diglossia, language transfer, and corpus and status planning. We begin

with a focus on language attitudes, since it is here that the social and

individual factors of language use dramatically affect one another.

In the first chapter, "Language Attitudes, Motivation, and Stan￾dards,55

Mary McGroarty examines how social factors influence an

individual's attitude and motivation toward learning a language and

how social attitudes create and legitimize language standards. In this

chapter, McGroarty provides a definition of attitudes and motivation

and surveys early research of these constructs. She then discusses cur￾rent theoretical approaches to studying language attitudes and motiva￾tion, emphasizing the research done in school settings and on teacher,

student, and parent attitudes. Next, McGroarty discusses how language

attitudes influence the creation of norms and standards as well as the

formation of language policies. She ends the chapter by elaborating on

the ways in which language teachers can promote individual motivation

to learn a language; she also emphasizes how language teachers must

be aware of the complex relationship between language attitudes and

standards and must work to develop language policies that value lin￾guistic diversity.

In Chapter 2, "Societal Multilingualism,55

Kamal Sridhar examines

contexts and uses of multilingualism and exemplifies the manner in

which societies allocate different uses for the languages widely spoken

in a society. She also examines the reasons why bilinguals switch from

the use of one language to another and explores the patterns and

functions of that switching. In closing, Sridhar discusses the implica￾tions of multilingualism for language teachers, emphasizing the need for

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2 Sociolinguistics and language teaching

teachers to value bilingualism and to determine goals and standards for

language teaching in light of the larger social and political context.

In the third chapter, "World Englishes," Braj Kachru and Cecil Nel￾son focus on the use of English in a global context and delineate the

uses and users of English internationally in terms of three concentric

circles: the Inner, Outer, and Expanding Circles. The authors provide

examples of the structural, lexical, discourse, and literary characteristics

of Outer Circle varieties of English and examine issues surrounding the

existence of these varieties such as linguistic norms and standards and

bilingual creativity. The chapter closes with a listing of specific areas of

language teaching in which the study and teaching of world Englishes

have particular relevance.

The final chapter of this part, "Language Planning and Policy,"

explores the manner in which societies make decisions to solve what are

perceived of as communication problems. Terrence Wiley reviews three

types of language planning - corpus planning, status planning, and

language acquisition planning. He points out that language planning

decisions can be undertaken by government officials as well as by

influential individuals and be either explicitly or implicitly stated. Next,

Wiley delineates two major approaches toward language planning, the

neoclassical and historical-structural, and summarizes the work of three

influential language theorists who exemplify aspects of these ap￾proaches. This discussion is followed by an examination of the kinds of

linguistic, political, and economic goals language planning often sets

out to achieve. In the final section, Wiley discusses language in educa￾tion planning, examining the manner in which the U.S. courts, linguists,

and classroom teachers participate in language planning decisions.

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

1 Language attitudes, motivation,

and standards

Mary McGroarty

So, if you really want to hurt me, talk badly about my language. Ethnic iden- tity is twin skin to linguistic identity — I am my language. Until I can take pride

in my language, I cannot take pride in myself. (Anzaldua, 1987, p. 59)

Language is an intimate part of social identity. Anzaldua testifies to the

deeply felt bond between language and selfhood, a bond demanding

that any language variety used by speakers during natural communica￾tion take its place as a legitimate form of expression. For teachers,

her words suggest that respect for all forms of language used in the

communities in which they teach is essential. At the same time, in all

school settings, language is always the medium and sometimes the

object of formal study. Often, teachers have a particular responsibility

for certain aspects of language instruction, whether they be acquisition

of native language literacy skills or skills in a second language. How

can teachers carry out their charge while respecting the languages and

language varieties that students bring to school and using existing lan￾guage skills to build new ones? How can teachers enable students to

achieve the linguistic mastery that will allow them access to both further

opportunities and personal satisfaction, if students so desire?

Teachers have long asked themselves why some students excel in a

subject but others, generally similar in background, academic prepara￾tion, and experience, struggle with or ignore it. When the subject is

language instruction, whether in a native or a second language, a host

of factors come into play. This chapter addresses one set of factors

related to success in the language classroom: the attitudes and motiva￾tion of those who participate, both students and teachers. Although

these factors are not the only ones that account for differences in

classroom processes and student outcomes, they shape the environment

for instruction and individual efforts of teachers and students in im￾portant ways.

The discussion in this chapter has benefited from the comments and suggestions of Bill

Grabe, Nancy Hornberger, Sandra McKay, Suzanne Scott, and Keith Walters at various

stages of manuscript preparation, and I am grateful for their insights and assistance.

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