Ship resistance and propulsion : Practical estimation of ship propulsive power

SHIP RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION

Second Edition

This second edition provides a comprehensive and scientific approach to evaluating ship

resistance and propulsion. Written by experts in the field, it includes the latest develop￾ments in computational fluid dynamics (CFD), experimental techniques and guidance

for the practical estimation of ship propulsive power. It addresses the increasing empha￾sis on improving energy efficiency and reducing emissions, including the introduction of

the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI). The text also includes sufficient published

standard series data for hull resistance and propeller performance to enable practitioners

to make ship power predictions based on material and data within the book, and numer￾ous fully worked examples illustrate applications for cargo and container ships, tankers,

bulk carriers, ferries, warships, work boats, planing craft, yachts, hydrofoils, submarines

and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). The book is ideal for practising naval

architects and marine engineers, sea-going officers, small craft designers, undergraduate

and postgraduate students, and professionals in transportation, transport efficiency and

eco-logistics.

Anthony F. Molland is Emeritus Professor of Ship Design at the University of Southamp￾ton. For many years, Professor Molland has extensively researched and published papers

on ship design and ship hydrodynamics, including propellers and ship resistance com￾ponents, ship rudders and control surfaces. He also acts as a consultant to industry in

these subject areas and has gained international recognition through presentations at

conferences and membership of committees of the International Towing Tank Confer￾ence (ITTC). Professor Molland is co-author of Marine Rudders and Control Surfaces

(2007) and editor of the Maritime Engineering Reference Book (2008).

Stephen R. Turnock is Professor of Maritime Fluid Dynamics at the University of

Southampton. Professor Turnock lectures on many subjects, including ship resistance and

propulsion, powercraft performance, marine renewable energy and applications of CFD.

His research encompasses both experimental and theoretical work on energy efficiency of

shipping, performance sport, underwater systems and renewable energy devices, together

with the application of CFD for the design of propulsion systems and control surfaces. He

acts as a consultant to industry, and was on committees of the ITTC and the International

Ship and Offshore Structures Congress (ISSC). Professor Turnock is co-author of Marine

Rudders and Control Surfaces (2007).

Dominic A. Hudson is Shell Professor of Ship Safety and Efficiency at the University of

Southampton. Professor Hudson lectures on ship resistance and propulsion, powercraft

performance and design, recreational and high-speed craft, and ship design. His research

interests are in all areas of ship hydrodynamics, including experimental and theoretical

work on ship resistance components, seakeeping and manoeuvring, together with energy￾efficient ship design and operation. He was a member of the ISSC Committee on Sailing

Yacht Design and is a member of the 28th ITTC Specialist Committee on Performance

of Ships in Service, having previously served on the ITTC Seakeeping and High Speed

Craft Committees.

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Ship Resistance and Propulsion

PRACTICAL ESTIMATION OF

SHIP PROPULSIVE POWER

Second edition

Anthony F. Molland

University of Southampton

Stephen R. Turnock

University of Southampton

Dominic A. Hudson

University of Southampton

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It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of

education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org

Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107142060

DOI: 10.1017/9781316494196

C Anthony F. Molland, Stephen R. Turnock, and Dominic A. Hudson 2017

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place without the written

permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2011

Second edition 2017

Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Molland, Anthony F.

Ship resistance and propulsion : practical estimation of ship propulsive power /

Anthony F. Molland, Stephen R. Turnock, Dominic A. Hudson.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-107-14206-0 (hardback)

1. Ship resistance. 2. Ship resistance – Mathematical models.

3. Ship propulsion. 4. Ship propulsion – Mathematical models.

I. Turnock, Stephen R. II. Hudson, Dominic A. III. Title.

VM751.M65 2017

623.8

12–dc22 2011002620

ISBN 978-1-107-14206-0 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication

and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,

accurate or appropriate.

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Contents

Preface to the Second Edition page xvii

Preface to the First Edition xix

Nomenclature xxi

Abbreviations xxv

Figure Acknowledgements xxix

1 Introduction 1

History 1

Powering: Overall Concept 3

Improvements in Efficiency 3

references (chapter 1) 5

2 Propulsive Power 7

2.1 Components of Propulsive Power 7

2.2 Propulsion Systems 7

2.3 Definitions 9

2.4 Components of the Ship Power Estimate 10

3 Components of Hull Resistance 12

3.1 Physical Components of Main Hull Resistance 12

3.1.1 Physical Components 12

3.1.2 Momentum Analysis of Flow Around Hull 18

3.1.3 Systems of Coefficients Used in Ship Powering 21

3.1.4 Measurement of Model Total Resistance 23

3.1.5 Transverse Wave Interference 29

3.1.6 Dimensional Analysis and Scaling 33

3.2 Other Drag Components 37

3.2.1 Appendage Drag 37

3.2.2 Air Resistance of Hull and Superstructure 46

3.2.3 Roughness and Fouling 52

3.2.4 Wind and Waves 57

3.2.5 Service Power Margins 64

references (chapter 3) 65

v

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vi Contents

4 Model–Ship Extrapolation 70

4.1 Practical Scaling Methods 70

4.1.1 Traditional Approach: Froude 70

4.1.2 Form Factor Approach: Hughes 71

4.2 Geosim Series 72

4.3 Flat Plate Friction Formulae 73

4.3.1 Froude Experiments 73

4.3.2 Schoenherr Formula 77

4.3.3 The ITTC Formula 79

4.3.4 Other Proposals for Friction Lines 80

4.4 Derivation of Form Factor (1 + k) 80

4.4.1 Model Experiments 81

4.4.2 CFD Methods 82

4.4.3 Empirical Methods 82

4.4.4 Effects of Shallow Water 84

references (chapter 4) 84

5 Model–Ship Correlation 86

5.1 Purpose 86

5.2 Procedures 86

5.2.1 Original Procedure 86

5.2.2 ITTC1978 Performance Prediction Method 88

5.2.3 Summary 91

5.3 Ship Speed Trials and Analysis 91

5.3.1 Purpose 91

5.3.2 Trials Conditions 92

5.3.3 Ship Condition 92

5.3.4 Trials Procedures and Measurements 92

5.3.5 Corrections 93

5.3.6 Analysis of Correlation Factors and Wake Fraction 96

5.3.7 Summary 97

5.3.8 Updated Ship Speed Trials Procedures 97

references (chapter 5) 100

6 Restricted Water Depth and Breadth 102

6.1 Shallow Water Effects 102

6.1.1 Deep Water 102

6.1.2 Shallow Water 102

6.2 Bank Effects 105

6.3 Blockage Speed Corrections 105

6.4 Squat 108

6.5 Wave Wash 108

references (chapter 6) 110

7 Measurement of Resistance Components 113

7.1 Background 113

7.2 Need for Physical Measurements 113

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Contents vii

7.3 Physical Measurements of Resistance Components 115

7.3.1 Skin Friction Resistance 115

7.3.2 Pressure Resistance 121

7.3.3 Viscous Resistance 124

7.3.4 Wave Resistance 129

7.4 Flow Field Measurement Techniques 141

7.4.1 Hot-Wire Anemometry 142

7.4.2 Five-Hole Pitôt Probe 142

7.4.3 Photogrammetry 142

7.4.4 Laser-Based Techniques 144

7.4.5 Summary 146

references (chapter 7) 147

8 Wake and Thrust Deduction 149

8.1 Introduction 149

8.1.1 Wake Fraction 149

8.1.2 Thrust Deduction 149

8.1.3 Relative Rotative Efficiency ηR 150

8.2 Origins of Wake 150

8.2.1 Potential Wake: wP 150

8.2.2 Frictional Wake: wF 151

8.2.3 Wave Wake: wW 151

8.2.4 Summary 151

8.3 Nominal and Effective Wake 151

8.4 Wake Distribution 152

8.4.1 General Distribution 152

8.4.2 Circumferential Distribution of Wake 153

8.4.3 Radial Distribution of Wake 153

8.4.4 Analysis of Detailed Wake Measurements 155

8.5 Detailed Physical Measurements of Wake 155

8.5.1 Circumferential Average Wake 155

8.5.2 Detailed Measurements 156

8.6 Computational Fluid Dynamics Predictions of Wake 156

8.7 Model Self-Propulsion Experiments 156

8.7.1 Introduction 156

8.7.2 Resistance Tests 157

8.7.3 Propeller Open Water Tests 157

8.7.4 Model Self-Propulsion Tests 157

8.7.5 Trials Analysis 160

8.7.6 Wake Scale Effects 160

8.8 Empirical Data for Wake Fraction and Thrust Deduction

Factor 161

8.8.1 Introduction 161

8.8.2 Single Screw 161

8.8.3 Twin Screw 164

8.8.4 Effects of Speed and Ballast Condition 167

8.9 Effects of Shallow Water 167

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viii Contents

8.10 Tangential Wake 168

8.10.1 Origins of Tangential Wake 168

8.10.2 Effects of Tangential Wake 168

8.11 Submarine and AUV Wake and Thrust Deduction 169

8.11.1 Submarine and AUV Wake 169

8.11.2 Submarine and AUV Thrust Deduction 171

8.11.3 Submarine and AUV Relative Rotative Efficiency 171

references (chapter 8) 171

9 Numerical Estimation of Ship Resistance 174

9.1 Introduction 174

9.2 Historical Development 175

9.3 Available Techniques 176

9.3.1 Navier–Stokes Equations 176

9.3.2 Incompressible Reynolds Averaged Navier–Stokes

Equations (RANS) 177

9.3.3 Potential Flow 179

9.3.4 Free Surface 179

9.4 Interpretation of Numerical Methods 181

9.4.1 Introduction 181

9.4.2 Validation of Applied CFD Methodology 183

9.4.3 Access to CFD 185

9.5 Thin Ship Theory 186

9.5.1 Background 186

9.5.2 Distribution of Sources 187

9.5.3 Modifications to the Basic Theory 187

9.5.4 Example Results 188

9.6 Estimation of Ship Self-Propulsion Using RANS 188

9.6.1 Background 188

9.6.2 Mesh Generation 189

9.6.3 Boundary Conditions 189

9.6.4 Methodology 190

9.6.5 Results 192

9.6.6 Added Resistance in Waves 194

9.7 Summary 195

references (chapter 9) 195

10 Resistance Design Data 198

10.1 Introduction 198

10.2 Data Sources 198

10.2.1 Standard Series Data 198

10.2.2 Other Resistance Data 200

10.2.3 Regression Analysis of Resistance Data 200

10.2.4 Numerical Methods 201

10.3 Selected Design Data 202

10.3.1 Displacement Ships 202

10.3.2 Semi-Displacement Craft 218

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Contents ix

10.3.3 Planing Craft 222

10.3.4 Small Craft 230

10.3.5 Multihulls 233

10.3.6 Yachts 239

10.3.7 Submarines and AUVs 245

10.3.8 Hydrofoil Craft 249

10.4 Wetted Surface Area 252

10.4.1 Background 252

10.4.2 Displacement Ships 253

10.4.3 Semi-Displacement Ships, Round-Bilge Forms 253

10.4.4 Semi-Displacement Ships, Double-Chine Forms 256

10.4.5 Planing Hulls, Single Chine 256

10.4.6 Yacht Forms 257

references (chapter 10) 257

11 Propulsor Types 264

11.1 Basic Requirements: Thrust and Momentum Changes 264

11.2 Levels of Efficiency 264

11.3 Summary of Propulsor Types 265

11.3.1 Marine Propeller 265

11.3.2 Controllable Pitch Propeller (CP Propeller) 266

11.3.3 Ducted Propellers 266

11.3.4 Contra-Rotating Propellers 268

11.3.5 Tandem Propellers 268

11.3.6 Z-Drive Units 269

11.3.7 Podded Azimuthing Propellers 270

11.3.8 Waterjet Propulsion 271

11.3.9 Cycloidal Propeller 271

11.3.10 Paddle Wheels 272

11.3.11 Sails 272

11.3.12 Oars 273

11.3.13 Lateral Thrust Units 273

11.3.14 Other Propulsors 274

references (chapter 11) 275

12 Propeller Characteristics 277

12.1 Propeller Geometry, Coefficients, Characteristics 277

12.1.1 Propeller Geometry 277

12.1.2 Dimensional Analysis and Propeller Coefficients 282

12.1.3 Presentation of Propeller Data 282

12.1.4 Measurement of Propeller Characteristics 283

12.2 Cavitation 286

12.2.1 Background 286

12.2.2 Cavitation Criterion 288

12.2.3 Subcavitating Pressure Distributions 289

12.2.4 Propeller Section Types 291

12.2.5 Cavitation Limits 291

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12.2.6 Effects of Cavitation on Thrust and Torque 294

12.2.7 Cavitation Tunnels 296

12.2.8 Avoidance of Cavitation 298

12.2.9 Preliminary Blade Area – Cavitation Check 298

12.2.10 Example: Estimate of Blade Area 300

12.3 Propeller Blade Strength Estimates 301

12.3.1 Background 301

12.3.2 Preliminary Estimates of Blade Root Thickness 301

12.3.3 Methods of Estimating Propeller Stresses 302

12.3.4 Propeller Strength Calculations Using Simple Beam

Theory 303

12.4 Shape-Adaptive Foils 310

references (chapter 12) 310

13 Powering Process 313

13.1 Selection of Marine Propulsion Machinery 313

13.1.1 Selection of Machinery: Main Factors to Consider 313

13.1.2 Propulsion Plants Available 313

13.1.3 Propulsion Layouts 316

13.2 Propeller–Engine Matching 316

13.2.1 Introduction 316

13.2.2 Controllable Pitch Propeller (CP Propeller) 318

13.2.3 The Multi-Engined Plant 319

13.3 Propeller Off-Design Performance 320

13.3.1 Background 320

13.3.2 Off-Design Cases: Examples 321

13.4 Voyage Analysis and In-Service Monitoring 323

13.4.1 Background 323

13.4.2 Data Required and Methods of Obtaining Data 324

13.4.3 Methods of Analysis 324

13.4.4 Limitations in Methods of Logging and Data Available 327

13.4.5 Developments in Voyage Analysis 328

13.4.6 Further Data Monitoring and Logging 328

13.5 Dynamic Positioning 329

references (chapter 13) 330

14 Hull Form Design 332

14.1 General 332

14.1.1 Introduction 332

14.1.2 Background 332

14.1.3 Choice of Main Hull Parameters 333

14.1.4 Choice of Hull Shape 337

14.2 Fore End 341

14.2.1 Basic Requirements of Fore End Design 341

14.2.2 Bulbous Bows 342

14.2.3 Cavitation 347

14.3 Aft End 347

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14.3.1 Basic Requirements of Aft End Design 347

14.3.2 Stern Hull Geometry to Suit Podded Units 350

14.3.3 Shallow Draught Vessels 352

14.4 Influence of Hull Form on Seakeeping 353

14.5 Computational Fluid Dynamics Methods Applied to Hull Form

Design 354

references (chapter 14) 355

15 Numerical Methods for Propeller Analysis 359

15.1 Introduction 359

15.2 Historical Development of Numerical Methods 359

15.3 Hierarchy of Methods 360

15.4 Guidance Notes on the Application of Techniques 361

15.4.1 Blade Element-Momentum Theory 361

15.4.2 Lifting Line Theories 362

15.4.3 Surface Panel Methods 362

15.4.4 Reynolds Averaged Navier–Stokes 364

15.5 Blade Element-Momentum Theory 365

15.5.1 Momentum Theory 365

15.5.2 Goldstein K Factors [15.8] 367

15.5.3 Blade Element Equations 369

15.5.4 Inflow Factors Derived from Section Efficiency 371

15.5.5 Typical Distributions of a, a and dKT/dx 373

15.5.6 Section Design Parameters 373

15.5.7 Lifting Surface Flow Curvature Effects 374

15.5.8 Calculations of Curvature Corrections 375

15.5.9 Algorithm for Blade Element-Momentum Theory 377

15.6 Propeller Wake Adaption 378

15.6.1 Background 378

15.6.2 Optimum Spanwise Loading 379

15.6.3 Optimum Diameters with Wake-Adapted Propellers 381

15.7 Effect of Tangential Wake 382

15.8 Examples Using Blade Element-Momentum Theory 383

15.8.1 Approximate Formulae 383

15.8.2 Example 1 384

15.8.3 Example 2 385

15.8.4 Example 3 386

15.9 Numerical Prediction of Cavitation 388

15.10 Assessment of Propeller Noise 390

15.11 Summary 391

references (chapter 15) 391

16 Propulsor Design Data 395

16.1 Introduction 395

16.1.1 General 395

16.1.2 Number of Propeller Blades 395

16.2 Propulsor Data 397

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xii Contents

16.2.1 Propellers 397

16.2.2 Controllable Pitch Propellers 415

16.2.3 Ducted Propellers 415

16.2.4 Podded Propellers 416

16.2.5 Cavitating Propellers 421

16.2.6 Supercavitating Propellers 423

16.2.7 Surface-Piercing Propellers 425

16.2.8 High-Speed Propellers, Inclined Shaft 429

16.2.9 Small Craft Propellers: Locked, Folding and

Self-Pitching 429

16.2.10 Waterjets 431

16.2.11 Vertical Axis Propellers 435

16.2.12 Paddle Wheels 436

16.2.13 Lateral Thrust Units 436

16.2.14 Oars 438

16.2.15 Sails 439

16.3 Hull and Relative Rotative Efficiency Data 443

16.3.1 Wake Fraction wT and Thrust Deduction t 443

16.3.2 Relative Rotative Efficiency, ηR 443

16.4 Submarine and AUV Propulsor Design 445

16.4.1 Submarine Propeller 445

16.4.2 AUV Propeller 446

references (chapter 16) 446

17 Reductions in Propulsive Power and Emissions 451

17.1 Introduction 451

17.2 Potential Savings in Hull Resistance 451

17.3 Potential Savings in Propeller Efficiency 452

17.3.1 Main Energy Losses 452

17.3.2 Detailed Design Modification to Propeller 456

17.3.3 Hull–Propeller–Rudder Interaction 456

17.4 Power Savings During Operation 456

17.4.1 Speed 456

17.4.2 Effects of Trim on Hull Resistance 457

17.4.3 Hull Surface Finish 458

17.4.4 Hull/Propeller Cleaning 459

17.4.5 Minimum Water Ballast 459

17.4.6 Weather Routeing 459

17.5 Energy Saving Devices (ESDs) 460

17.5.1 Working Principles 460

17.5.2 Upstream Fins 460

17.5.3 Upstream Ducts (Pre-Ducts) 460

17.5.4 Twisted Stern Upstream of Propeller 461

17.5.5 Downstream Fins 461

17.5.6 Twisted Rudder 461

17.5.7 Integrated Propeller–Rudder 461

17.5.8 Propeller Boss Cap Fins (PBCFs) 461

17.5.9 Summary 462

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Contents xiii

17.6 Auxiliary Propulsion Devices 462

17.6.1 Wind 462

17.6.2 Wave 463

17.6.3 Solar: Using Photovoltaic Cells 463

17.6.4 Gyroscopic Systems 463

17.6.5 Auxiliary Power–Propeller Interaction 464

17.6.6 Applications of Auxiliary Power 464

17.7 Alternative Fuels 464

17.8 Alternative Machinery/Propulsor Arrangements 464

17.9 Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) 465

17.9.1 Introduction 465

17.9.2 EEDI Formula 465

17.9.3 Power P 466

17.9.4 Capacity C 466

17.9.5 Speed Vref 466

17.9.6 Correction Factors in Equation (17.10) 467

17.9.7 EEDI Reference Line 467

17.9.8 Ship Types Subject to EEDI Regulations 467

17.9.9 Implementation of EEDI 468

17.9.10 Reduction in EEDI (Methods of Reducing EEDI) 468

17.9.11 Minimum Propulsive Power 469

17.10 Summary 469

references (chapter 17) 469

18 Applications 474

18.1 Background 474

18.2 Example Applications 474

18.2.1 Example Application 1. Tank Test Data: Estimate of

Ship Effective Power 474

18.2.2 Example Application 2. Model Self-Propulsion Test

Analysis 476

18.2.3 Example Application 3. Wake Analysis from

Full-Scale Trials Data 477

18.2.4 Example Application 4. 140 m Cargo Ship: Estimate

of Effective Power 478

18.2.5 Example Application 5. Tanker: Estimates of

Effective Power in Load and Ballast Conditions 479

18.2.6 Example Application 6. 8000 TEU Container Ship:

Estimates of Effective and Delivered Power 480

18.2.7 Example Application 7. 135 m Twin-Screw Ferry,

18 knots: Estimate of Effective Power PE 485

18.2.8 Example Application 8. 45.5 m Passenger Ferry,

37 knots, Twin-Screw Monohull: Estimates of

Effective and Delivered Power 488

18.2.9 Example Application 9. 98 m Passenger/Car Ferry,

38 knots, Monohull: Estimates of Effective and

Delivered Power 491

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18.2.10 Example Application 10. 82 m Passenger/Car

Catamaran Ferry, 36 knots: Estimates of Effective and

Delivered Power 493

18.2.11 Example Application 11. 130 m Twin-Screw Warship,

28 knots, Monohull: Estimates of Effective and

Delivered Power 496

18.2.12 Example Application 12. 35 m Patrol Boat, Monohull:

Estimate of Effective Power 502

18.2.13 Example Application 13. 37 m Ocean-Going Tug:

Estimate of Effective Power 504

18.2.14 Example Application 14. 14 m Harbour Work Boat,

Monohull: Estimate of Effective Power 504

18.2.15 Example Application 15. 18 m Planing Craft,

Single-Chine Hull: Estimates of Effective Power

Preplaning and Planing 506

18.2.16 Example Application 16. 25 m Planing Craft, 35 knots,

Single-Chine Hull: Estimate of Effective Power 509

18.2.17 Example Application 17. 10 m Yacht: Estimate of

Performance 511

18.2.18 Example Application 18. Tanker: Propeller

Off-Design Calculations 515

18.2.19 Example Application 19. Twin-Screw Ocean-Going

Tug: Propeller Off-Design Calculations 518

18.2.20 Example Application 20. Ship Speed Trials:

Correction for Natural Wind 521

18.2.21 Example Application 21. Detailed Cavitation Check

on Propeller Blade Section 522

18.2.22 Example Application 22. Estimate of Propeller Blade

Root Stresses 524

18.2.23 Example Application 23. Propeller Performance

Estimates Using Blade Element-Momentum

Theory 525

18.2.24 Example Application 24. Wake-Adapted Propeller 527

18.2.25 Example Application 25. Patrol Class Submarine:

Estimates of Effective and Delivered Power 528

18.2.26 Example Application 26. AUV: Estimates of Effective

and Delivered Power 530

references (chapter 18) 532

APPENDIX A1: Background Physics 533

A1.1 Background 533

A1.2 Basic Fluid Properties and Flow 533

Fluid Properties 533

Steady Flow 535

Uniform Flow 535

Streamline 535

A1.3 Continuity of Flow 535

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Contents xv

A1.4 Forces Due to Fluids in Motion 536

A1.5 Pressure and Velocity Changes in a Moving Fluid 536

A1.6 Boundary Layer 537

Origins 537

Outer Flow 537

Flow Within the Boundary Layer 538

Displacement Thickness 539

Laminar Flow 540

A1.7 Flow Separation 540

A1.8 Wave Properties 541

Wave Speed 542

Deep Water 542

Shallow Water 542

references (appendix a1) 543

APPENDIX A2: Derivation of Eggers Formula for Wave Resistance 544

APPENDIX A3: Tabulations of Resistance Design Data 547

APPENDIX A4: Tabulations of Propulsor Design Data 581

Index 587

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