Recording and Producing Audio for Media

RECORDING AND

PRODUCING AUDIO

FOR MEDIA

Stanley R. Alten

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Recording and Producing Audio for Media

Stanley R. Alten

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eISBN-10: 1-4354-6066-9

For Claudette

Preface ...................................................................................................xii

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................xv

PART I: PRINCIPLES

Chapter 1

Sound and Hearing ..................................................................................3

The Importance of Sound in Production .................................................................................3

The Sound Wave .....................................................................................................................4

Frequency and Pitch................................................................................................................4

Amplitude and Loudness.........................................................................................................7

Frequency and Loudness .........................................................................................................8

Velocity .................................................................................................................................12

Wavelength............................................................................................................................12

Acoustical Phase....................................................................................................................13

Timbre...................................................................................................................................15

Sound Envelope.....................................................................................................................16

The Healthy Ear....................................................................................................................16

Hearing Loss .........................................................................................................................18

Main Points...........................................................................................................................23

Chapter 2

Acoustics and Psychoacoustics...............................................................25

Spatial Hearing .....................................................................................................................25

Direct, Early, and Reverberant Sound ...................................................................................27

Matching Acoustics to Program Material..............................................................................28

Studio Design ........................................................................................................................31

Control Room Design ...........................................................................................................44

Ergonomics ...........................................................................................................................44

Main Points...........................................................................................................................46

iv Recording and Producing Audio for Media

CONTENTS

PART II: TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 3

Loudspeakers and Monitoring ...............................................................51

Types of Loudspeakers ..........................................................................................................51

Loudspeaker Powering Systems.............................................................................................52

Selecting a Monitor Loudspeaker..........................................................................................54

Monitor Placement................................................................................................................61

Calibrating a Loudspeaker System ........................................................................................68

Evaluating the Monitor Loudspeaker....................................................................................71

Headphones ..........................................................................................................................73

Main Points...........................................................................................................................76

Chapter 4

Microphones..........................................................................................79

Operating Principles..............................................................................................................79

General Transducer Performance Characteristics ..................................................................83

Directional Characteristics ....................................................................................................84

Sound Response ....................................................................................................................88

Microphone Modeler ............................................................................................................93

Special-Purpose Microphones................................................................................................93

Wireless Microphone System...............................................................................................112

Microphone Accessories......................................................................................................117

Microphone Care ................................................................................................................124

Main Points.........................................................................................................................125

Chapter 5

Consoles and Control Surfaces ............................................................129

Analog and Digital Consoles...............................................................................................129

On-Air Broadcast Consoles.................................................................................................130

Production Consoles ...........................................................................................................132

Channel Strips.....................................................................................................................144

Patching ..............................................................................................................................145

Console Automation ...........................................................................................................147

Digital Consoles ..................................................................................................................150

Control Surfaces..................................................................................................................152

Main Points.........................................................................................................................157

Contents v

Chapter 6

Recording ............................................................................................161

Digital Audio ......................................................................................................................162

Technologies and Formats...................................................................................................167

Tapeless Recording Systems ................................................................................................168

Removable-Media Recording Systems.................................................................................168

Digital Audio Workstations.................................................................................................179

Digital Audio Networking...................................................................................................181

Digital Audio on Digital Videotape.....................................................................................183

Audio on Film.....................................................................................................................184

Main Points.........................................................................................................................185

Chapter 7

Synchronization and Transfers.............................................................189

Time Codes .........................................................................................................................189

Synchronizing Digital Equipment........................................................................................190

Frame Rates ........................................................................................................................192

Synchronizing Sound and Picture in Film............................................................................194

Transfers .............................................................................................................................195

Main Points.........................................................................................................................199

Chapter 8

Signal Processors..................................................................................201

Plug-Ins ...............................................................................................................................201

Stand-Alone Signal Processors Versus Plug-Ins....................................................................202

Spectrum Processors............................................................................................................202

Time Processors...................................................................................................................207

Amplitude Processors ..........................................................................................................214

Noise Processors .................................................................................................................222

Multieffects Signal Processors .............................................................................................223

Other Types of Plug-Ins.......................................................................................................224

Format Compatibility of Plug-Ins........................................................................................224

Main Points.........................................................................................................................224

vi Recording and Producing Audio for Media

PART III: PRODUCTION

Chapter 9

Sound and the Speaking Voice .............................................................229

Frequency Range.................................................................................................................229

Sound Level.........................................................................................................................230

Distribution of Spectral Content .........................................................................................230

Influences of Nonverbal Speech on Meaning ......................................................................230

Basic Considerations in Miking Speech...............................................................................233

Main Points.........................................................................................................................237

Chapter 10

Voice-Overs and Narration..................................................................239

Voice Acting........................................................................................................................239

Recording Voice-Overs........................................................................................................243

Narration ............................................................................................................................248

Main Points.........................................................................................................................249

Chapter 11

Dialogue ..............................................................................................251

Recording Dialogue in Multi- and Single-Camera Production.............................................251

Recording Dialogue in the Field..........................................................................................266

How Directors Can Help the Audio Crew ..........................................................................275

Production Recording and the Sound Editor.......................................................................276

Automated Dialogue Replacement ......................................................................................276

Main Points.........................................................................................................................282

Chapter 12

Studio Production: Radio and Television.............................................285

Miking the Single Speaker in Radio ....................................................................................285

Radio Interview and Panel Setups .......................................................................................288

Radio Dramatizations .........................................................................................................290

Miking Speech for Multicamera Television .........................................................................295

News and Interview Programs ............................................................................................296

Panel and Talk Programs.....................................................................................................296

Main Points.........................................................................................................................303

Contents vii

Chapter 13

Field Production: News and Sports......................................................305

Electronic News Gathering..................................................................................................305

Electronic Field Production .................................................................................................320

Multicamera EFP ................................................................................................................323

Production of Sports Programs ...........................................................................................330

Main Points.........................................................................................................................350

Chapter 14

Sound Design.......................................................................................353

Sound Design and the Sound Designer................................................................................353

“Ears”.................................................................................................................................354

Elements of Sound Structure and Their Effects on Perception.............................................358

The Visual Ear ....................................................................................................................359

Functions of Sound in Relation to Picture...........................................................................360

Strategies in Designing Sound .............................................................................................362

Designing Sound for Mobile Media ....................................................................................371

Main Points.........................................................................................................................373

Chapter 15

Sound Effects .......................................................................................375

Contextual Sound ...............................................................................................................375

Narrative Sound..................................................................................................................375

Functions of Sound Effects..................................................................................................376

Producing Sound Effects......................................................................................................381

Live Sound Effects...............................................................................................................386

Electronically Generated Sound Effects ...............................................................................399

Organizing a Sound-Effect Library......................................................................................403

Spotting...............................................................................................................................404

Main Points.........................................................................................................................405

Chapter 16

Music Underscoring.............................................................................407

Uses of Music in a Production ............................................................................................407

Music Characteristics ..........................................................................................................408

Functions of Music Underscoring........................................................................................410

Music in Spot Announcements............................................................................................414

Creative Considerations in Underscoring ............................................................................415

Approaches to Underscoring ...............................................................................................418

Prerecorded Music Libraries................................................................................................424

viii Recording and Producing Audio for Media

Customized Music Programs...............................................................................................426

Customized Musical Instrument Programs..........................................................................427

Copyright and Licenses .......................................................................................................427

Using Music from Commercial Recordings.........................................................................431

Using Music from Sample CDs and the Internet .................................................................431

Organizing a Music Library ................................................................................................432

Main Points.........................................................................................................................433

Chapter 17

Audio for Interactive Media: Game Sound ..........................................435

Interactive Media ................................................................................................................435

Designing Audio for Interactivity ........................................................................................436

System Resources ................................................................................................................439

The Production Process.......................................................................................................442

Example of a Video Game Sequence ...................................................................................457

Debugging...........................................................................................................................462

User Playback......................................................................................................................463

Main Points.........................................................................................................................464

Chapter 18

Internet Production..............................................................................467

Data Transfer Networks......................................................................................................467

Audio Fidelity .....................................................................................................................469

Online Collaborative Recording..........................................................................................476

Podcasting...........................................................................................................................478

Audio Production for Mobile Media...................................................................................480

Main Points.........................................................................................................................482

Chapter 19

Music Recording..................................................................................485

Close Miking.......................................................................................................................485

Distant Miking....................................................................................................................486

Accent Miking.....................................................................................................................489

Ambience Miking................................................................................................................491

Six Principles of Miking ......................................................................................................491

Drums .................................................................................................................................492

Acoustic String Instruments.................................................................................................502

Woodwinds .........................................................................................................................513

Brass....................................................................................................................................517

Electric Instruments.............................................................................................................519

Virtual Instruments .............................................................................................................525

Contents ix

Vocals..................................................................................................................................526

Miking Studio Ensembles....................................................................................................531

Miking Music for Digital Recording ...................................................................................533

Recording for Surround Sound ...........................................................................................534

Main Points.........................................................................................................................541

PART IV: POSTPRODUCTION

Chapter 20

Editing .................................................................................................547

Digital Editing.....................................................................................................................547

Basic Functions in Digital Editing .......................................................................................548

General Editing Guidelines..................................................................................................553

Organizing the Edit Tracks..................................................................................................555

File Naming ........................................................................................................................556

Drive Management..............................................................................................................557

Differences Between Editing Sound and Editing Picture......................................................557

Editing Speech.....................................................................................................................558

Editing Dialogue .................................................................................................................564

Editing Sound Effects ..........................................................................................................569

Editing Music......................................................................................................................572

Transitions ..........................................................................................................................578

Listening Fatigue .................................................................................................................580

Main Points.........................................................................................................................581

Chapter 21

Mixing: An Overview ..........................................................................583

Maintaining Aesthetic Perspective.......................................................................................584

Mixing for Various Media...................................................................................................585

Mixing Versus Layering ......................................................................................................590

Metering..............................................................................................................................594

Mixing and Editing .............................................................................................................595

Main Points.........................................................................................................................595

Chapter 22

Music Mixdown ..................................................................................597

Preparing for the Mixdown.................................................................................................597

Signal Processing .................................................................................................................602

Spatial Imaging of Music in Stereo and Surround Sound ....................................................614

Basic Equipment for Mixing Surround Sound.....................................................................621

x Recording and Producing Audio for Media

Mixing for Surround Sound ................................................................................................621

Aesthetic Considerations in Surround-Sound Mixing..........................................................627

Main Points.........................................................................................................................629

Chapter 23

Premixing and Rerecording for Television and Film ............................631

Premixing for Television and Film.......................................................................................631

The Rerecording Mix..........................................................................................................635

Spatial Imaging of Stereo and Surround Sound in Television and Film ...............................636

Mixing for Mobile-Media Receivers ...................................................................................646

Cue Sheets...........................................................................................................................646

Compatibility: Stereo-to-Mono and Surround-to-Stereo .....................................................647

Main Points.........................................................................................................................649

Chapter 24

Evaluating the Finished Product...........................................................653

Intelligibility........................................................................................................................653

Tonal Balance......................................................................................................................653

Spatial Balance and Perspective...........................................................................................654

Definition............................................................................................................................654

Dynamic Range...................................................................................................................654

Clarity.................................................................................................................................654

Airiness ...............................................................................................................................654

Acoustical Appropriateness .................................................................................................655

Source Quality ....................................................................................................................655

Production Values ...............................................................................................................655

Main Points.........................................................................................................................655

Appendix: Occupations in Audio.........................................................657

Selected Bibliography...........................................................................661

Glossary...............................................................................................669

Credits .................................................................................................697

Index....................................................................................................699

Contents xi

Advances in audio production continue at an accelerated rate. One of the main

purposes of this book is to deal with the interdependent and blurring relation￾ship between technique and technology while remembering that technology

serves art; it is the means to the end, not the end in itself.

Most of the basic considerations that relate to aural perception, aesthetics, operations,

production know-how, and the qualities that go into good sound remain fundamental.

It is undeniable that technology has helped make production more accessible, more effi￾cient, and generally less expensive and has facilitated the production of extremely high￾quality sound. But a production’s ultimate success is due to human creativity, vision, and

“ears.” As Ham Brosius, pro audio marketing pioneer, once observed, “Respect tech￾nology but revere talent.”

A word about the inseparability of computers from audio production: Because there are

so many different types of computers and computer software programs in use in an ever￾changing landscape, the relationship of computers to audio production is covered only

as it applies to producing program materials and not to computer technology, software

programs, or operational details. There are many books on the market that handle these

areas, to say nothing of the manuals provided with computers and software programs.

Recording and Producing Audio for Media covers all the major audio and audio-related

media: radio, television, film, music recording, interactive media, the Internet, and

mobile media, such as cell phones, iPods, cameras, PDAs, and laptop computers.

Content is designed for the beginner, yet the experienced practitioner will find the mate￾rial valuable as a reference even after a course of study is completed. The organization

facilitates reading chapters in or out of sequence, based on need and level of background,

with no disruption in continuity. Chapters are grouped relative to the subject areas of

principles, technology, production, and postproduction.

Each chapter is preceded by an outline of its main headings and concluded with a list of

its main points. Key terms are identified in bold italic and defined in the Glossary.

PREFACE

Structure of the Book

Part I: Principles

Chapter 1, “Sound and Hearing,” introduces the physical behavior of sound and its rela￾tionship to our psychophysical perception of sound stimuli. It also includes a section

about the importance of healthy hearing and illustrations related to hearing loss.

Chapter 2, “Acoustics and Psychoacoustics,” develops the material in Chapter 1 as it

applies to the objective behavior of received sound, its subjective effect on those who

hear it, and how these factors affect studio and control room design and construction.

Part II: Technology

Chapter 3, “Loudspeakers and Monitoring,” deals with the relationship between loud￾speaker selection and control room monitoring, including stereo and surround-sound

monitoring. It also includes a section on headphones.

Chapter 4, “Microphones,” discusses their principles, characteristics, types, and acces￾sories.

Chapter 5, “Consoles and Control Surfaces,” covers signal flow and the design of broad￾cast and production consoles—analog and digital—and control surfaces. Patching and

console automation are also discussed. Because of the many different types, models, and

designs of consoles in use and their various purposes, the approach to the material in

this edition is generic so that the basic principles are easier to grasp and apply.

Chapter 6, “Recording,” covers basic digital theory, digital recorders, digital formats,

disk-based recording systems, digital audio on videotape, and film audio formats.

Chapter 7, “Synchronization and Transfers,” covers these fundamental aspects of pro￾duction and postproduction.

Chapter 8, “Signal Processors,” discusses their general principles—both stand-alone and

plug-ins—and their effects on sound.

Part III: Production

Chapter 9, “Sound and the Speaking Voice,” is the first of three grouped chapters that

focus on the delivery and the signification of nonverbal speech. This chapter concen￾trates on speech intelligibility and basic considerations in miking and recording speech.

Chapter 10, “Voice-Overs and Narration,” explains the basic factors in the delivery, pro￾duction, and functions of these aspects of recorded speech.

Chapter 11, “Dialogue,” covers production recording and automated dialogue replace￾ment of recordings made in the studio and on-location.

Chapter 12, “Studio Production: Radio and Television,” covers microphone and pro￾duction techniques as they apply to studio programs in radio and television.

Preface xiii

Chapter 13, “Field Production: News and Sports,” concentrates on producing

news and sports on-location and includes material on the growing use of wireless data

transmission.

Chapter 14, “Sound Design,” introduces the nature and the aesthetics of designing

sound, the basic structure of sonic communication, the sound/picture relationship, and

strategies for designing sound for traditional and mobile media. It includes a section on

the importance of having “ears”—the ability to listen to sound with judgment and dis￾crimination. The chapter also serves as a foundation for the two chapters that follow.

Chapter 15, “Sound Effects,” covers prerecorded sound-effect libraries and producing

and recording sound effects in the studio and in the field. It includes a section on vocally

produced sound effects and a section on ways to produce sound effects.

Chapter 16, “Music Underscoring,” addresses music’s informational and emotional

enhancement of visual content, with a section of examples.

Chapter 17, “Audio for Interactive Media: Game Sound,” introduces the preproduction,

production, and postproduction of audio for games and how they are similar to and dif￾ferent from handling audio for television and film.

Chapter 18, “Internet Production,” covers sound quality on the Internet. It includes dis￾cussions of online collaborative recording and podcasting and a section about produc￾ing for mobile media.

Chapter 19, “Music Recording,” focuses on studio-based recording of live music. It

includes the characteristics of musical instruments, ways to mike them, and various

approaches to miking ensembles for stereo and surround sound.

Part IV: Postproduction

Chapter 20, “Editing,” describes the techniques of digital editing. It also addresses orga￾nizing the edit tracks; drive and file management; the aesthetic considerations that apply

to editing speech, dialogue, music, and sound effects; and the uses of transitions.

Chapter 21, “Mixing: An Overview,” is the first of three grouped chapters covering mix￾ing. This chapter introduces the final stage in audio production, when sounds are com￾bined and processed for mastering, final duplication, and distribution. It includes

coverage of mixing for the various media and the role of metering in assessment and

troubleshooting.

Chapter 22, “Music Mixdown,” is devoted to mixing and processing music for stereo

and surround sound, with coverage of signal processing.

Chapter 23, “Premixing and Rerecording for Television and Film,” includes coverage of

the procedures for the premix and rerecording stages; dialnorm; stereo and surround

sound; mobile media; and mono-to-stereo and surround sound-to-stereo compatibility.

Chapter 24, “Evaluating the Finished Product,” reviews the sonic and aesthetic consid￾erations involved in judging the result of a production.

xiv Recording and Producing Audio for Media