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Public Relations and Communication Management in Europe
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Public Relations and Communication Management in Europe
≥
Public Relations and
Communication Management
in Europe
A Nation-by-Nation Introduction
to Public Relations Theory and Practice
edited by
Betteke van Ruler
Dejan Vercˇicˇ
Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York
Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague)
is a Division of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin.
Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines
of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability.
ISBN 3-11-017611-4 hb
ISBN 3-11-017612-2 pb
Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek
Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche
Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the
Internet at http://dnb.ddb.de.
” Copyright 2004 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, 10785 Berlin.
All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this
book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Cover design: Sigurd Wendland, Berlin. Based on an idea by Saso Leskovar.
Printed in Germany.
Table of contents
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Larissa A. Grunig and James E. Grunig
Chapter 1. Overview of public relations and communication
management in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Betteke van Ruler and Dejan Verčič
Chapter 2. Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Karl Nessmann
Chapter 3. Belgium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Luc Pauwels and Baldwin Van Gorp
Intermezzo: A constructivistic approach to public relations. . . . . . 45
Klaus Merten
Chapter 4. Bosnia-Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Nenad Brkic and Melika Husic
Chapter 5. Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Minka Zlateva
Chapter 6. Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Boris Hajoš and Ana Tkalac
Chapter 7. Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Kaja Tampere
Chapter 8. Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Jaakko Lehtonen
Intermezzo: The reflective paradigm of public relations . . . . . . . . . 121
Susanne Holmström
Chapter 9. France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Valérie Carayol
Chapter 10. Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Günter Bentele and Ivonne Junghänel
vi Table of contents
Chapter 11. Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Prodromos Yannas
Chapter 12. Hungary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
György Szondi
Chapter 13. Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Francis Xavier Carty
Intermezzo: The transitional approach to public relations . . . . . . . 217
Ryszard Ławniczak
Chapter 14. Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Tony Muzi Falconi and Renata Kodilja
Chapter 15. Malta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Carmel Bonello
Chapter 16. The Netherlands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Betteke van Ruler
Chapter 17. Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Pål Horsle
Chapter 18. Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Ryszard Ławniczak
Intermezzo: Public sphere as central concept of public relations . . 309
Juliana Raupp
Chapter 19. Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
José Viegas Soares and António Marques Mendez
Chapter 20. Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Katerina Tsetsura
Chapter 21. Serbia and Montenegro. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Milenko D. Djurić
Chapter 22. Slovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Ivan Žáry
Chapter 23. Slovenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Dejan Verčič
Table of contents vii
Intermezzo: Civil society and public relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Jószef Katus
Chapter 24. Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Ma de los Ángeles Moreno Fernandez
Chapter 25. Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Bertil Flodin
Chapter 26. Switzerland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Ulrike Röttger
Chapter 27. Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Zafer Özden and Mine Saran
Intermezzo: Consensus-oriented public relations (COPR):
A concept for planning and evaluation of public relations . . . . . . . 459
Roland Burkart
Chapter 28. United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Eric Koper
Chapter 29. New perspectives of public relations in Europe . . . . . 485
Günter Bentele
Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Acknowledgements
This book could not have been produced without the help of numerous people. First of all, the authors of the chapters. We are extremely
grateful to all of them for producing – and reproducing – their insiders’
view on public relations in their respective countries: there would have
been no book without them. We feel certain that this book is a major
contribution to the knowledge about and understanding of public relations and communication management in our respective countries as
well as abroad.
Second, we like to thank our English editor, Peter Kahrel of Lancaster,
UK. Language is one of the big problems to overcome in projects such as
this one. He was able to understand the sometimes rather deficient use of
the English language of all of us, non-native writers, discussing every
word he did not understand. Some of the chapters raised lengthy discussions between him and the author, due to cultural and linguistic differences and problems. If any of us now knows about public relations and
communication management in Europe, it is Peter Kahrel. The book
would have been an even more endless project without him.
Third, we want to thank Anke Beck and Birgit Sievert of our publishing house, Mouton de Gruyter, in Berlin. They have had to wait quite a
while for the manuscript to be fit for print – we hope it was worth their
while.
Betteke van Ruler and Dejan Verčič
June 2003
Amsterdam/Ljubljana
Foreword
Larissa A. Grunig and James E. Grunig
This text reflects broad interests, not only in public relations but also in
how that critical organisational function varies across countries in Europe. Taken together, the chapters expose the extraordinary pace of the
development of public relations in Europe. Individual authors show how
public relations is being reshaped – some would argue transformed – by
such factors as education in the field, escalating management expectations, professional societies, economic privatisation and concomitant
consumer demand, grassroots activism and increasingly powerful NGOs
and communication technologies.
Such forces, we believe, are likely to continue to have profound, rapid,
and “lumpy” effects on the study and practice of public relations. That is,
we cannot trace a clear trajectory from where public relations begins in a
given state to where it inevitably ends up. Instead, as these chapters illustrate, the development of the field tends to happen in fits and starts, with
moments of glory and others that dismay its detractors and supporters
alike.
Make no mistake, though: the profiles of public relations in the countries included in this book establish that development has changed how
the function is organised, funded and appreciated by the dominant coalitions of the organisations it serves. We are convinced by the authors
brought together on this momentous project that public relations will
continue to evolve for the foreseeable future to the point where – if not
already – it will have profound effects on organisations, their publics, and
even the societies in which they co-exist.
The inevitable outcome of this development, in our view, is that public
relations research, education, and practice will become increasingly central to organisational and societal life throughout Europe. Of course, the
European context is changing as well. The public relations described in several chapters here suggests that communication managers not only can
help their organisations anticipate that societal transformation but actually lead it. Having a significant impact on the continent, however, also
seems to require a commonality of understanding of what public relations
is – its contributions to organisational effectiveness, its role as social con-
xii Larissa A. Grunig and James E. Grunig
science, its imperative to empower even external publics, and so forth.
Thus, we cannot overstate the potential impact of this first-of-its-kind text.
To begin, though, consider the book’s role in explicating a European
identity for public relations. Some sociologists are asking whether “identity” is a useful or desirable concept, given its unfortunate history since
psychoanalyst Erik Erikson first used it in the 1950s to understand personality crises in adolescents. After that, many scholars – sociologists,
psychologists, marketers, business management types, and of course
communicators – have confounded it with “image”. The term, once used
uncritically to reflect a sense of belonging, now may reflect only central
fictions of organisational life. However, the exploration of practice in this
book that goes beyond individual countries to encompass a regional
study is immensely valuable.
At the same time, the book does not homogenise European public relations practice across nation states. Individual contributions maintain a
healthy respect for different approaches to professionalism, to research
and education and to practice. The result is a deep and fascinating interpretation of how public relations is studied, taught, and implemented in
geographically similar yet idiosyncratic political, economic, media, language, and cultural systems. Each chapter presents a place-specific picture and a definable national story. Authors have taken care to highlight
the significant historical developments that explain that story.
Of course, we could argue that nations represent overlarge units of
analysis. Like many contemporary historians, we could suggest instead
that only by studying subnational regions can we truly and deeply analyze public relations. (Changes in the world arguably diminish the relevance of any single nation as the object of inquiry.) On the other hand,
scholars in area-studies programs would suggest just the opposite: that
given today’s greater interregional economic, cultural and political ties, it
makes sense to focus on the supranational – looking, for example, at the
“Atlantic” region. We believe this book successfully navigates the chasm
between these two concerns. Each individual chapter is written by such
local experts that their resulting analyses provide the necessary depth
and truth value or credibility. Thus the chapters have the additive effect
of providing for larger geographical connections and comparisons across
Europe – Eastern, Central and Western.
Editing a volume like this represents hard work against long odds. Who
but someone with the brains, the experience, the motivation, the dedication, the depth of understanding, the persistence, the grace, and the personal networks of a Dejan Verčič or a Betteke van Ruler could have pulled
Foreword xiii
this off? To that list of qualities van Ruler and Verčič might want to add a
bit of luck, meticulous organisation, exhaustion, and a good stock of aspirin to deal with all the headaches that accompany a project of this magnitude. We trust their relationships with colleagues included as authors here
have survived the intricacies of editing and translation. Those colleagues
represent the best and the brightest among European professionals and
scholars, and we would place van Ruler and Verčič at the pinnacle. Van
Ruler has just accepted a prestigious full professorship at the highly respected University of Amsterdam, in the largest department of communication science in the Netherlands. Verčič almost single-handedly established public relations as a legitimate academic discipline in Slovenia while
founding and managing Pristop, the country’s most successful public relations firm.
Read each of the authors’ entries here and you may find yourself reflecting on how public relations has shifted in its meaning and practice –
generally in the direction of greater respect, more solid education, increasing support from professional societies, dawning of the ethical imperative, bigger contribution to the organisational bottom line, replacing
asymmetry with symmetry, expanding roles from the technical to the managerial, a fledgling acknowledgement of the interdependence between
organisation and publics, and escalating reach from media relations or
publicity to relationships with a range of strategic constituencies. Are
these European trends alone? Probably not, but the authors have used
their individual lenses to pick up the beams of light emanating from
twenty-seven European countries and – in the process – they have provided readers with enough understanding to answer the question at least
to our own satisfaction.
We have no doubt that this seminal treatise will launch numerous research studies and considerable emulation. Undoubtedly some such
work is in progress, but where is our compendium of public relations in
Africa? In South America? When all such research and writing is complete, we will have a body of knowledge for public relations that is simultaneously broader, more reflective, and more inclusive than ever before.
Even now, this book sets the stage for dialogue among university-based
scholars and professionals, as well as between European practitioners
and educators and their counterparts around the world. We all owe a
debt to Betteke van Ruler and Dejan Verčič for bringing us together
through this work. We look forward to the debate.
Chapter 1
Overview of public relations
and communication management in Europe
Betteke van Ruler and Dejan Verčič
Public relations is widely practiced in Europe, although rarely under that
name. Because of all kinds of societal, economic and technological reasons, CEOs become more and more aware that public acceptance of and
trust in their companies is a fundamental condition for the survival of
their organisations. They are also aware that this is a matter of strategic
management of their public relations, though in their own national language this is often called “information management” or “communication
management”. They frequently hire professionals, in-house or from consultancies, to give advice and handle the organisation’s communicative
and relational well-being. Public relations is a flourishing industry in
many countries, and all over Europe young people are interested in studying it and becoming a professional.
In Europe, public relations has a history of at least one century. Bentele and Szyska (1995), for example, refer to Krups as the first company
with a department dedicated to press relations, set up in 1870. L’Etang
(1999) places the beginning of public relations in England in the 1920s.
Van Ruler (2003) shows that, although the first public relations departments in the Netherlands emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century, the industry is much older. Nevertheless, little is known about typical aspects of public relations in Europe and to date, there has been little
exchange of knowledge. In order to gain insight in public relations in European countries, we carried out two projects, the EBOK project and the
Public Relations in Europe project. This book is the outcome of the latter project. The EBOK project consisted of two phases: the Delphi research project and the development of a portal to enable on-line knowledge sharing in Europe and across the world (EBOK has a web site with
the final report of the Delphi study and an electronic bibliography; see
www.viewebok.org).