Manufacturing processes : Grinding, honing, lapping

RWTHedition

RWTH Aachen

Fritz Klocke

Manufacturing Processes 2

Grinding, Honing, Lapping

Translated by Aaron Kuchle

123

Professor Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. E. h. Fritz Klocke

Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering of

RWTH Aachen University

Manfred-Weck Building

Steinbachstr. 19

52074 Aachen

Germany

[email protected]

Translator

Aaron Kuchle

Woosong University

Woosong Language Institute

196-5 Jayang Dong

Daejon 300-831

Dong Gu

Republic of Korea (South Korea)

[email protected]

ISBN 978-3-540-92258-2 e-ISBN 978-3-540-92259-9

DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-92259-9

RWTHedition ISSN 1865-0899 e-ISSN 1865-0902

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009920210

c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is

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even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws

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987654321

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Preamble about Compendium “Manufacturing

Processes’’

Key factors for quality and economic efficiency of industrial production are the

In order to counter this necessity the compendium at hand is supposed to pre￾sent an overall picture of the most common machining and non-machining manu￾facturing processes. Additional to the description of the techniques these volumes

are desired to deliver an insight in the underlying physical principles whenever it

is necessary for the understanding of the processes.

The apportionment of the compendium “Manufacturing Processes” into

Volume 1: Turning, Milling, Drilling

Volume 2: Grinding, Honing, Lapping

Volume 3: Electrical Erosion and Hybride Processes

Volume 4: Forming

Volume 5: Casting, Sintering, Rapid Prototyping

groups techniques with similar active principles together.

In front of the first volume is placed a technique-spanning section to the toler￾ances and questions of the workpiece measuring techniques used in manufactur￾ing.

Within the individual volumes was tried to avoid an encyclopaedic listing of

the techniques. The book series are primarily intended for junior scientists in the

fields of manufacturing technology and construction. In addition, the practitioner

will be able to refurbish or extend his knowledge. The variety of manufacturing

problems is as large as the multiplicity of the products, and alone with text book

wise sayings manufacturing questions are not to be solved. We wish that this book

offers starting points and ways to its readers, on which they can come up with suc￾cessful solutions by engineering thinking.

Aachen, September 2008

Fritz Klocke

choice of the manufacturing processes and their design. Manufacturing Technology

is an elemental part of the fundamental knowledge of machining engineers.

Also design engineers have to gain knowledge in this field, since they have

high responsibility for the manufacturing costs. However, the students as well as

practising experts who are willing to enhance their knowledge have the problem to

collect information. To the current day there is no extensive, but still clear descrip￾tion of manufacturing processes focussing on the technology itself.

Preamble for Volume 2 “Grinding, Honing,

Lapping’’

The available volume treats machining with geometrically undefined cutting

edges. It approaches both the practical engineer and the student of engineering

sciences.

This book is based on the lecture “Manufacturing Technologies I and II” and

the pertinent exercises, which are held at RWTH Aachen University. The ar￾rangement of the book results from the experiences, which were gained when lec￾turing in the chronology of the course. It results likewise from the fact that new

topic areas such as the grindability of different materials, is brought up for the first

time.

The structure of the book is oriented to a large extent at didactical criteriae.

Thus the first section deals with the chip formation at the cutting edges, the in￾volved force and energy distributions at the cutting edges as well as the wear of

the grinding grit. Following the description of grinding tool specifications, the

new chapter on grindability of different materials and a chapter on the fundamen￾tals of cooling lubricants follow. On these basic principles the different grinding

processes and their kinematic characteristices are then presented in detail. The pa￾rameters of the different grinding techniques, references to process implementa￾tions as well as industrial used sample applications are likewise specified. Finally,

besides honing and lapping techniques, special techniques and different methods

of process control are presented. The necessity for process control, used sensor

systems and application possibilities are regarded. Due to the increasing relevance

and application in industrial manufacturing plants, monitoring systems are dis￾cussed in their own chapter.

For their cooperation with the compilation of the available edition I would like

to thank my co-workers, Dr.-Ing. Z. Nachmani, Dr.-Ing. H. Wegner, Dipl.-Ing. S.

Buchholz, Dipl.-Ing. (FH) M. Duscha, Dipl.-Ing. H. Gröning, Dipl.-Ing. B. Meyer,

Dipl.-Ing. A. Pampus, Dipl.-Ing. A. Roderburg, Dipl.-Ing. (FH) D. Schlütter,

Dipl.-Ing. V. Vasilios, Dipl.-Ing. M. Weiß, Dipl.-Ing. R. Zunke, as well as Dr.-

Ing. B. Linke, who was additionally responsible for the coordination of the work

on this book.

Further I would like to thank the many former co-workers, who participated in

the past German editions and now have leading positions in industry and research

companies.

Aachen, September 2008

Fritz Klocke

Contents

Symbols and Abbreviations ............................................................................ XIII

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................1

2 Principles of Cutting Edge Engagement...........................................................3

2.1 Cutting Edge Form.......................................................................................4

2.2 Cutting Edge Engagement ...........................................................................7

2.3 Distribution of Force and Energy in the Grinding Process ........................11

2.4 Grit and Bond Wear...................................................................................14

3 Structure and Composition of Grinding Wheels ...........................................17

3.1 Grit Material ..............................................................................................17

3.1.1 Natural Grit Materials ........................................................................17

3.1.2 Synthetic Grit Materials .....................................................................19

3.2 Bonds .........................................................................................................37

3.2.1 Resin Bonds........................................................................................38

3.2.2 Vitrified Bonds...................................................................................39

3.2.3 Metallic Bonds ...................................................................................40

3.2.4 Other bonds ........................................................................................40

3.2.5 Fillers and Additives ..........................................................................41

3.3 Tool Structure and Designation .................................................................42

3.3.1 Composition of Conventional Grinding Wheels ................................43

3.3.2 The Designation of Conventional Tools.............................................45

3.3.3 Composition of Superabrasive Grinding Wheels ...............................50

3.3.4 The Designation of Superabrasive Grinding Wheels .........................51

3.4 Tool Manufacture ......................................................................................54

3.4.1 The Manufacture of Tools with Conventional Abrasives...................54

3.4.2 The Manufacture of Superabrasive Grinding Wheels ........................58

3.5 Tool Testing...............................................................................................61

3.5.1 Hardness Testing ................................................................................62

3.5.2 Investigations in Grit Break-out .........................................................64

3.6 Abrasive Belts (Coated Abrasives) ............................................................66

3.6.1 Composition of Abrasive Belts ..........................................................66

3.6.2 The Manufacture and Structure of Abrasive Belts .............................66

VIII Contents

4 The Machinability of Various Materials ........................................................73

4.2 Influencing the Material Properties of Steels.............................................74

4.2.1 Material Properties as a Function of Carbon Content ........................74

4.2.2 The Influence of Alloying Elements on Material Properties..............77

4.2.3 Material Properties as a Function of Heat Treatment.........................79

4.3 The Structure of Various Steel Materials...................................................83

4.3.1 Case-Hardened Steels.........................................................................83

4.3.2 Heat-Treated Steels ............................................................................84

4.3.3 Nitrided Steels....................................................................................86

4.3.4 Roller Bearing Steels..........................................................................87

4.3.5 Tool Steels..........................................................................................88

4.3.6 Non-Corrosion, Fireproof and High-Temperature Steels...................89

4.4 Grinding Various Structural Components in Steels...................................91

4.5 Grinding Iron-Casting Materials................................................................92

4.6 Grinding Nickel-Based Materials ..............................................................94

4.6.1 Construction and Structure.................................................................94

4.6.2 Properties and Uses ............................................................................96

4.6.3 Grinding Behaviour – Influences on the Grinding Process ................96

4.7 Grinding Titanium Materials .....................................................................99

4.7.1 Construction and Structure.................................................................99

4.7.2 Properties and Uses ..........................................................................102

4.7.3 Grinding Behaviour – Influences on the Grinding Process ..............103

4.8. Grinding Brittle Materials.......................................................................105

4.8.1 The Machining Behaviour of Brittle Materials ................................106

4.8.2 Machining High-Performance Ceramics..........................................107

4.8.3 Glass Machining...............................................................................108

4.8.4 Silicon ..............................................................................................110

5 Cooling Lubricants.........................................................................................113

5.1 Principles of Cooling Lubricants in the Grinding Process.......................113

5.1.1 General Functions ............................................................................113

5.1.2 The Tribological System of Grinding...............................................114

5.1.3 Requirements of Cooling Lubricants in the Grinding Process .........114

5.2 Classification, Structure and Properties...................................................116

5.2.1 Oils...................................................................................................116

5.2.2 Emulsions.........................................................................................117

5.2.3 Aqueous Solutions ...........................................................................119

5.2.4 Use of Additives...............................................................................119

5.3 The Influence of Cooling Lubrication on the Grinding Process ..............120

5.3.1 Cooling Lubricant Type ...................................................................120

5.3.2 Cooling Lubricant Supply ................................................................123

5.4 Supervision, Maintenance and Disposal ..................................................129

4.1 The Concept of “Machinability” in the Grinding Process ......................... 73

Contents IX

6 Grinding ..........................................................................................................135

6.1 Preparation...............................................................................................135

6.1.1 Dressing Kinematics.........................................................................136

6.1.2 Sharpening........................................................................................142

6.1.3 Further Dressing Methods – Special Methods..................................146

6.1.4 Cleaning ...........................................................................................152

6.1.5 Dressing Variables and Effective Mechanisms – The Influence of

Tool Preparation on the Grinding Process .......................................153

6.2 Parameters................................................................................................161

6.3. Methodological Variants according to DIN 8589...................................177

6.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................177

6.3.2 External Cylindrical Grinding ..........................................................182

6.3.3 Internal Cylindrical Grinding ...........................................................210

6.3.4 Surface Grinding ..............................................................................212

6.3.5 Coated Abrasives..............................................................................215

6.4 Other Variants..........................................................................................227

6.4.1 Gear Grinding...................................................................................227

6.4.2 Gear Honing .....................................................................................248

6.5 Process Design.........................................................................................251

6.5.1 The Influence of Variables and Parameters on the Result................251

6.5.2 The Influence of the Grinding Tool on the Output...........................269

6.5.3 Multistage Processes ........................................................................273

6.5.4 Disturbances.....................................................................................280

6.6 Application Examples..............................................................................287

6.6.1 External Cylindrical Peripheral Plunge Grinding.............................287

6.2.2 External Form Grinding ...................................................................290

6.6.3 Internal Cylindrical Peripheral Plunge Grinding..............................293

6.6.4 Centreless Plunge Grinding..............................................................296

6.6.5 Surface Peripheral Plunge Grinding.................................................299

7 Honing .............................................................................................................302

7.1 Kinematic Principles................................................................................303

7.2 Honing Tools and their Preparation.........................................................309

7.2.1 Honing Stones with Corundum or Silicon Carbide ..........................309

7.2.2 Honing Stones with Boron Nitride and Diamond.............................309

7.3 Influences on the Process and the Work Result .......................................310

7.3.1 Input Variables .................................................................................310

7.3.2 Tool Shape and Specifications .........................................................321

7.3.3 Workpiece Structure.........................................................................329

7.3.4 Additives ..........................................................................................331

7.4 Examples of Application..........................................................................333

7.4.1 Plateau Honing .................................................................................333

X Contents

7.4.3 Laser Honing....................................................................................337

8 Lapping and Polishing ...................................................................................338

8.1 Lapping....................................................................................................338

8.1.1 Fundamentals ...................................................................................339

8.1.2 Composition of Tools and Operational Materials ............................347

8.1.3 Accessories.......................................................................................350

8.1.4 Parameters........................................................................................351

8.1.5 Applications .....................................................................................354

8.2 Polishing ..................................................................................................356

8.2.1 Principles..........................................................................................357

8.2.2 Tool Construction and Composition ................................................364

8.2.3 Accessories.......................................................................................367

8.2.4 Parameters........................................................................................368

9 Special Methods..............................................................................................370

9.1 Abrasive Blast Cutting.............................................................................370

9.1.1 Operating Principle, Initial Process Parameters and Blast

Parameters .......................................................................................370

9.1.2 Method Variations and Applications................................................371

9.2 Free Abrasive Grinding ...........................................................................375

9.2.1 Operating Principle ..........................................................................375

9.2.2 Method Variations and Applications................................................376

9.2.3 The Influence of Input Process Parameters on the Result ................379

9.3 Cutting with Geometrically Undefined Cutting Edges ............................380

9.3.1 Abrasive Cutting ..............................................................................380

9.3.2 Multi-Wire Slicing (MWS) ..............................................................383

9.3.3. Inner Diameter Slicing ....................................................................387

10 Process Monitoring.......................................................................................390

10.1 The Necessity of Process Monitoring ....................................................390

10.2 Sensors for Process Monitoring.............................................................392

10.2.1 Force Sensors .................................................................................392

10.2.2 Current Sensors ..............................................................................393

10.2.3 AE-Sensors.....................................................................................394

10.3 First Contact Control .............................................................................397

10.4 Collision Monitoring .............................................................................400

10.5 Dressing Monitoring..............................................................................401

10.6 Service Life Monitoring while Grinding Using AE...............................403

10.6.1 Monitoring Grinding Wheel Wear with the AE Effective Value ...403

10.6.2 Detecting Chattering ......................................................................404

10.6.3 Process Step Recognition as an Element of Reliable Monitoring ..405

7.4.2 Gear Honing of Externally Toothed Spur Gears with an Internally

Toothed Tool ...................................................................................334

Contents XI

Literature ...........................................................................................................410

Index ...................................................................................................................431

10.7 Control of Workpiece Properties ...........................................................406

10.8 Reliability of Process Monitoring..........................................................408

Symbols and Abbreviations

Capital letters

Acu mm2

chip cross-sectional area

Ah mm2 contact surface of the honing stone

AH mm2 chip area

Ak mm2 piston area

Amom μm2 momentary chip cross-sectional area

AN - proportionality constant

AR eff μm2

effective scratch cross-sectional area

AR μm2 scratch cross-sectional area

Ask mm2 edge wear area

Asr mm2 radial wear area

Avk μm2 wear area

Cstat mm-3 static cutting edge density

C1 mm-3 cutting edge density

E N/mm2 E modulus

Ec´´ J/mm-

² area related grinding energy

F N force

F´n N/mm specific normal force

F´t N/mm specific tangential force

Fa N axial force

Fc N cutting force

Fn N normal force

XIV Symbols and Abbreviations

Fns N normal cutting force during centre￾less grinding

Fo N edge force (upward stroke of the

tool)

FQ N transversal force

Ft N tangential force

Fta N friction force on workrest plate

Ftr N friction force on control wheel

FtS N grain tangential cutting force

Fu N edge force (downward stroke of the

tool)

G - grinding ratio

HB - Brinell hardness

HK -

Knoop hardness

HRC - Rockwell hardness

HV - Vickers hardness

HZ - hardness number

K g compensation weight (wheel bal￾ancing)

Lkin mm kinematic cutting edge distance

Lstat mm static cutting edge distance

Lvk μm length of wear area

MAK - maximal workplace concentration

level

Nkin mm-2 kinematic cutting edge number per

surface area

Nmom - momentary cutting edge number

Symbols and Abbreviations XV

Nstat mm-2 statical cutting edge number per sur￾face area

P kW power (total power, spindle power)

Pc kW cutting power (grinding power)

Pc'' W/mm2 area related grinding power

Pl kW idle load power

Qs mm3

/s wear volume flow rate

Q'S mm3

/(mm⋅s) specific wear volume flow rate

Q'Sb mm3

/(mm⋅s) specific sharpening material re￾moval rate

Q'Sb krit mm3

/(mm⋅s) critical specific sharpening material

removal rate

Qw mm3

/s material removal rate

Q'w mm3

/(mm.

s) specific material removal rate

Q'w eff mm3

/(mm.

s) specific effective material removal

rate

Q'w eff min mm3

/(mm.

s) minimal specific effective material

removal rate

Ra μm average roughness height

Ra0 μm initial average roughness height

Ri - heat transfer factors

Rm N/mm2 tensile strength

Rp0,2 N/mm2 0,2% creep limit

Rt μm roughness

Rt0 μm initial roughness

Rtb μm reference roughness

Rts μm actual grinding wheel surface

roughness

XVI Symbols and Abbreviations

s0 μm initial actual grinding wheel surface

roughness

RtW μm workpiece roughness

Rz μm mean peak-to-valley height

S sharpness parameter

Skin mm-1 kinematic cutting edge number per

length

Sstat mm-1 statical cutting edge number per

length

T s time constant

T °C temperature

Tμ μm grain cutting depth

TRK - technical concentration guideline

value

TStand min tool life

U - overlap ratio

Ua - overlap ratio in spark-out zone

Ud - dressing overlap ratio

URMS V effective value of AE amplitude

V mm3

volume

VB mm3

bond volume

Vh mm3 honing stone wear volume

VK mm3

grit volume

Vp mm3

pore volume

Vs mm3 grinding wheel wear volume

V's mm3

/mm specific grinding wheel wear

Rt

volume