Manufacturing processes and materials

Manufacturing

Processes & Materials

Fifth Edition

Ahmad K. Elshennawy

Gamal S. Weheba

Dearborn, Michigan

Copyright © 2015 by Society of Manufacturing Engineers

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition v

CONTENTS

About the Authors............................................................................................................................................ ix

Purpose of This Text......................................................................................................................................... xi

Text Background; Scope of Coverage; Use and Application; Organization of the Text

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................................xv

1 Manufacturing Foundations........................................................................................................................ 1

Manufacturing; Hand Tools to Machine Tools; Types of Products; Organization for Manufacturing; Questions; References

2 The Competitive Challenge in Manufacturing........................................................................................... 13

Importance of Manufacturing as an Economic Activity; State of the Industry; Labor Productivity; International

Competitiveness; Manufacturing Innovations; Questions; References

3 Material Properties and Testing................................................................................................................ 23

Metal Structures; Metallurgy of Iron and Steel; Testing of Engineering Materials; Questions; Problems; References

4 Iron and Steel............................................................................................................................................ 57

Iron, Steel, and Power; Iron Making; The Blast Furnace and Its Chemistry; Steelmaking; Finishing and Ingot Teeming;

Special Techniques in Steel Refining; Aluminum; Copper; Miscellaneous Metals; Steel; Effects of Alloying Elements in Ferrous

Alloys; Carbon Steels; Alloy Steels; Questions; References

5 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys................................................................................................................... 79

Effects of Alloying on Properties; Aluminum; Magnesium; Copper; Zinc; Titanium; Nickel and Its Alloys; The White Metals;

Refractory Metals; Precious Metals; Questions; References

vii

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition Contents

16 Measurement and Gaging ...................................................................................................................... 357

Purpose and Definitions; Standards; Instruments; Coordinate Measuring Machines; Automatic Gaging Systems; Measuring

with Light Rays; Surface Quality; Manufacturing Specifications; Questions; Problems; References

17 How Metals are Machined ...................................................................................................................... 403

Importance of Metal Machining; Basic Processes; Mechanics of Metal Cutting; Metal Machining Conditions; Metal-cutting

Tools; Cutting Fluids; Questions; Problems; References

18 Turning, Boring, and Facing .................................................................................................................... 431

Turning Operations; The Lathe; Accessories and Attachments; Lathe Operations; Production Turning Machines; Machining

Time and Material Removal Rate; Questions; Problems; References

19 Process Planning and Cost Evaluation .................................................................................................... 457

Introduction; Preproduction Process Planning; Process Plan Development; Economics of Process Planning; Machine Tool

Selection; How Costs are Estimated and Compared; Questions; Problems; References

20 Drilling and Allied Operations................................................................................................................ 481

Operations Defined; Drills, Boring Tools, and Reamers; Drilling Machines; Drilling Machine Accessories

and Attachments; Boring Machines; Drilling and Boring Operations; Process Planning; Questions; Problems; References

21 Milling..................................................................................................................................................... 509

Evolution of Flat Surface Generating Processes; Milling Process; Milling Cutters and Drivers; Milling Machines; Process

Planning; Questions; Problems; References

22 Broaching and Sawing ............................................................................................................................ 531

Broaching; Sawing; Questions; Problems; References

23 Abrasives, Grinding Wheels, and Grinding Operations.......................................................................... 551

Abrasives; Grinding Wheels; Other Abrasive Products; Grinding Operations; Economics; Questions; Problems; References

24 Grinding Machines and Methods............................................................................................................ 573

Precision Grinders; Nonprecision Grinders; Grinding Compared with Other Operations; Questions; Problems; References

25 Ultra-finishing Operations...................................................................................................................... 595

Lapping; Honing; Microfinishing; Burnishing and Bearingizing; Nonprecision Deburring

and Finishing Processes; Process Planning; Questions; References

26 Other Surface Enhancement Processes.................................................................................................... 613

Cleaning; Surface Coatings; Green Manufacturing; Questions; Problems; References

27 Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes................................................................................................ 629

Chemical Machining Processes; Electrochemical/Electrolytic Machining Processes; Thermal Machining Processes; Waterjet

Machining (WJM); Questions; Problems; References

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition Contents

viii

28 Thread and Gear Manufacturing............................................................................................................. 651

Screw Threads and Screws; Gears; Questions; Problems; References

29 Manufacturing Systems........................................................................................................................... 689

Introduction; Manufacturing Systems; Manufacturing Technologies; Lean Manufacturing; Rapid Prototyping and

Manufacturing; Questions; References

30 Flexible Program Automation ................................................................................................................. 707

Classes of Automation; Manned Cell Partial Automation; Unmanned Cell Automation; Computer Integration; Economic

Justification of an Automated System; Questions; Problem; References

Index............................................................................................................................................................. 733

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition ix

About the Authors

Co-authors Ahmad Elshennawy and Gamal

Weheba share their wealth of practical

experience and technical knowledge of manu￾facturing processes and materials in this com￾prehensive text.

Ahmad K.

Elshennawy,

Ph.D. is As￾sociate Chair

and Profes￾sor in the

Department

of Industrial

Engineering

and Manage￾ment Sys -

tems at the

University of

Central Flor￾ida (UCF). Prior to joining UCF in 1986, he

served as a guest researcher with the Precision

Engineering Division of the National Institute

of Standards and Technology (NIST). With over

30 years of international experience as a re￾searcher, academician, and a consultant, Dr.

Elshennawy’s areas of expertise include manu￾facturing processes and systems, quality and

reliability engineering, lean manufacturing

strategies, and business and process perfor￾mance improvement and management. He re￾ceived B.S. and M.S. degrees in Production

Engineering from Alexandria University

(Egypt) and M. Eng. and Ph.D. degrees in In￾dustrial Engineering from Penn State Univer￾sity. Dr. Elshennawy is a fellow of the American

Society for Quality (ASQ), and a senior member

of the Institute of Industrial Engineers (IIE)

and SME. He is an ASQ Certified Quality En￾gineer, a Certified Reliability Engineer, and a

Lean Six Sigma Master Black Belt.

G a m a l

S. Weheba,

Ph.D. is a Pro￾fessor in the

Department

of Industrial

and Manu￾facturing En￾gineering at

Wichita State

University.

He received a

B.S. in Pro￾duction Engineering from Menoufia University

(Egypt) and a Ph.D. in Industrial Engineering

and Management Systems from the University

of Central Florida. Since 1981 he has taught

courses on industrial engineering and manufac￾turing-related subjects at Menoufia University

(Egypt), the University of Central Florida, and

Wichita State University. Dr. Weheba has

performed research in the areas of quality

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition About the Authors

x

management systems, statistical process con￾trol, reliability engineering, product design

optimization, and quality improvement. He

applies his expertise in these areas and in ad￾ditive manufacturing and rapid tooling to solve

problems pertaining to quality and productivity

of manufacturing systems, manufacturing of

composites, and rapid prototyping. He is a fellow

of ASQ, an ASQ Certified Quality Engineer, and

a senior member of SME.

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition xi

Purpose of This Text

Manufacturing involves a complex system

of people, machines, materials, and money

organized to produce a product. There are a

number of components to every manufacturing

organization, each of which requires people with

different education, training, and experience

with different levels of skills. The technical

departments within such an organization, for

example product design, production engineering,

manufacturing engineering, industrial engineer￾ing, tool engineering, quality engineering, and

the production function itself, all require tech￾nical personnel with an appropriate degree of

knowledge of the manufacturing process. This

text is dedicated to providing the reader with

an understanding of the basic processes and

equipment used in manufacturing so that he or

she might work more productively within those

technical areas of manufacturing.

Since the scope of manufacturing is extremely

broad, a single textbook cannot expect to address

the whole spectrum of machines and processes

that might be applicable to such a diverse field.

Instead, different textbooks tend to limit their

scope to those areas of manufacturing wherein

the authors’ interest and proficiency are great￾est. In this text, the scope of coverage is more or

less limited to the basic machines and processes

used in the forming, machining, and fabricat￾ing of products and parts made of metallic and

nonmetallic materials.

TEXT BACKGROUND

Much of the coverage of the basic manufac￾turing processes stems from the earlier work

of Lawrence E. Doyle who was Professor of

Mechanical Engineering at the University of

Illinois-Champaign/Urbana. Professor Doyle,

with the assistance of contributing authors C. A.

Keyser, J. L. Leach, J. L. Morris, G. F. Schrader,

and M. B. Singer, prepared three successive

editions of Manufacturing Processes and Ma￾terials for Engineers (Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961,

1969, and 1985). In addition to the background

provided by Professor Doyle and his colleagues,

recognition must be given to Dr. Vimal H. Desai,

who was Associate Professor of Engineering at

the University of Central Florida, for his con￾sultative input.

Dr. George F. Schrader, Emeritus Professor of

Engineering at the University of Central Florida,

and Dr. Ahmed K. Elshennawy prepared the

Fourth Edition. They focused their contributions

on advanced equipment and contemporary man￾ufacturing methods and materials. This book is a

revision of the Fourth Edition, which recognizes

changes in the manufacturing curricula and in￾dustry that have taken place since 2000.

SCOPE OF COVERAGE

The basic processes of manufacturing have

not changed significantly since the Industrial

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition Purpose of This Text

xii

Revolution. For example, metals are still

cast in sand molds, formed metal parts are

still stamped on punch presses, cylindrical

parts are turned on lathe-like turning ma￾chines, and surfaces are ground with abrasive

wheels and stones. However, the supporting

technologies, such as machines, cutting tools,

controls, and measuring instruments for these

processes have made tremendous advances.

This has permitted manufacturing companies

to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of

operations and the quality and reliability of the

products produced.

This edition focuses on the basic machines

and tools applicable to the job shop, toolroom,

or small-volume manufacturing facility. At the

same time, it will expose the reader to some of

the more advanced equipment used in larger

volume production environments.

USE AND APPLICATION

Manufacturing Processes & Materials has

been designed for use at several levels of the

informal and formal educational process. It

can be used as an introductory text for in-plant

training of manufacturing personnel. Or, at the

other extreme, it can be used as an advanced

text at the college or university level where it

will provide a comprehensive manufacturing

educational background for technical students in

a variety of disciplines. Because of the breadth of

coverage, it is recommended for a two-semester

or two-quarter sequence in conjunction with a

manufacturing laboratory. In addition, the text

will be useful as a reference for technical stu￾dents and manufacturing personnel.

ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXT

Chapter 1 introduces the reader to traditional

manufacturing. It is a must read for students

who have not been exposed to a manufacturing

environment or who may not have any knowl￾edge or appreciation for the complexities of that

environment. Chapter 2 describes many of the

challenges that manufacturing establishments

must face if they expect to remain competitive

in a global environment.

The next five chapters are concerned with

engineering materials, their physical proper￾ties, testing, treatment, and suitability for use

in manufacturing. These chapters should be

required reading for students with little or no

preparation in these subject areas.

Chapter 8 is dedicated to a discussion of the

commonly used composite materials and the

various processes used to manufacture compos￾ite products. It introduces the reader to basic

knowledge of materials and processes utilized to

manufacture composite structures. The chapter

includes a description of methods used to deter￾mine the fundamental properties of composites

before and after manufacturing.

The chapters concerned with the machines,

tools, and processes of manufacturing are

arranged in accordance with the traditional

hierarchy for conversion of raw materials into

a finished product via a variety of casting, form￾ing, joining, and machining processes.

Chapter 16 follows with a rather extensive

treatment of measuring and gaging instruments

used for assessing conformance to specifications.

Chapter 19 introduces the reader to the

planning process and to a number of economic

methods for comparing alternatives. In addition,

many of the other chapters include materials

on process planning and economic analysis

with reference to a particular set of processes

or machines. The importance of planning in

any manufacturing environment must be em￾phasized if the results are to be cost-effective,

on-time, and on-quality.

Production planners and manufacturing engi￾neers will agree that the manufacturing planning

process is filled with choices. With the current

emphasis on continuous improvement (just￾in-time and lean/agile manufacturing) making

the right choice the first time is critical to the

competitive status of companies. Thus, it is im￾portant that personnel involved in planning are

knowledgeable about the alternative processes

available, the capabilities of those processes,

and the economic advantage of one process over

another. For example, as explained in Chapter 21

on milling, there are probably 40 or 50 different

operations that can be performed on the versa￾tile milling machine and its newer likeness, the

machining center. These operations range from

drilling a hole to cutting a keyway. Each of these

operations can be done on any one of a dozen or

xiii

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition Purpose of This Text

more types of machines ranging from a simple

column-and-knee type, manually operated mill

to a very sophisticated and expensive multi-axis,

multi-spindle CNC machining center. In addition,

a variety of types and sizes of cutting tools are

available to do each operation. Sometimes the

choices are clear and simple, and at other times,

complex.

Chapters 29 and 30 introduce the reader to

many of the systems concepts currently used in

manufacturing practice. These chapters are a

must for those students who expect to take more

advanced courses on manufacturing systems.

They will also familiarize a variety of technical

manufacturing personnel with the practices they

will encounter in the most progressive manu

-

facturing environments.

Visit www.sme.org/MPM to view

online video content that comple

-

ments this book.

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition xv

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the contri￾butions of Dr. George F. Schrader to the Fourth

Edition of this book. Both had the pleasure of

working with him at the University of Central

Florida, where he taught a variety of courses.

The authors wish to dedicate this Fifth Edition

in his memory.

Also, the authors acknowledge the recom￾mendations and suggestions made by reviewers

of the manuscript for this text. Those reviews

often provided a valuable perspective of subject

areas that had not been fully developed.

In addition, an expression of gratitude is ex￾tended to the many machine tool manufacturers,

dealers, trade associations, and technical societ￾ies who contributed photographs, technical data,

and other information for use in this publica￾tion. Without their cooperation and assistance,

it would have been impossible to assemble the

depth and breadth of illustrative detail provided

in this book.

Last but certainly not least, the authors are

deeply grateful and appreciative of the tremen￾dous assistance provided by Rosemary Csizma￾dia, Senior Production Editor at the Society of

Manufacturing Engineers. The authors could

not hope for a more enthusiastic, knowledgeable,

and cooperative editor.

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition 1

1

Manufacturing Foundations

“A tool is but the extension of a man’s hand and

a machine is but a complex tool.”

—Henry Ward Beecher

velopment for over a million years. If the original

meaning of manufacture, “to make by hand,” is

applicable, then manufacturing in some form has

existed over that time. Early prehistoric mankind

learned to retain certain skeletal remains of ani￾mals, such as horns, tusks, and jaw bones, and

fashion them into hand tools for use in hunting

and preparation of food. Later on, as the evolu￾tion of “tool making” progressed, an even greater

variety of tools were made from stone and wood.

During this period, flint stone was recognized

as a very hard material and became a common

substance for use in fashioning spears, axes, ar￾rowheads, and even crude saws and drills.

The Bronze Age, beginning about 6,500 years

ago, ushered in the use of metal as a primary

element in the construction of hand tools. For the

most part, these tools were still relatively primi￾tive, with the bronze metal being used primarily

to replace the stone axe heads, spear heads, and

hammer heads that were popular during the

Stone Age. However, the Bronze Age did see

some very slight transformations of hand tools to

what might be called semi-machine status. For

example, the bow drill, which used a bow string

to rotate a bronze drill, provided some mechanical

advantage to the rotational process.

The Iron Age

The Iron Age, beginning about 3,400 years

ago, gave birth to a broad spectrum of new hand

Manufacturing

Manufacture means to make goods and wares

by industrial processes. The derivation of the

word manufacture reflects its original meaning:

to make by hand. Today, however, manufactur￾ing is done largely by machinery and, as the

technology of manufacturing advances, less and

less manual labor is involved in the making of a

product. In fact, most manufacturing firms in the

U. S. strive to minimize the labor cost component

of their products to remain competitive. Thus,

machinery, vis-a-vis technology, has and will

probably continue to replace the human labor

element in manufacturing much the same as it

has done in the U. S. agricultural industry. In a

contemporary sense then, manufacturing involves

the assembling of a system of people, money, ma￾terials, and machinery for the purpose of building

a product. This definition draws on the economic

viewpoint that manufacturing adds value to mate￾rials by altering their shape, properties, and/or ap￾pearance. This may involve a sequence of planned

processing and assembly operations comprising a

manufacturing or production system.

Hand Tools to Machine Tools

Early Hand Tools

Tools of one kind or another have enabled

mankind to survive and contribute to societal de-

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition Chapter 1: Manufacturing Foundations

2

tools for many different trades and a refine￾ment of the tools from previous periods. Early

in this period, hand tools were hammered out

of meteoritic iron removed from meteorites that

were embedded in the earth. However, the use

of large quantities of iron and steel for tools and

other implements did not take place until after

the invention of the blast furnace in Europe at

around 1340 A.D.

The installation of an operating blast furnace

in the U. S. in 1621 facilitated increased pro￾duction of a large variety of hand tools, semi￾machines, horse-drawn vehicles, agricultural

implements, and so on. The machines and ve￾hicles during that period were powered, driven,

or propelled by water, animal, or human energy.

A variety of devices were employed, such as wa￾ter wheels, treadmills, windlasses, horse-drawn

whims, and the like. In addition, many creative

devices were used to obtain a significant amount

of mechanical advantage. For example, the devel￾opment of a fitted horse collar to replace the tra￾ditionally used yoke made it possible for draught

animals to increase their pulling power nearly

fourfold. Many machines were operated by foot

treadles, and in the early 1700s, a simple wind￾lass was used to pull a rifling broach through the

barrel of a rifle. Finally, in 1775, John Wilkinson

developed a water-wheel-powered horizontal

boring mill in Bersham, England, which permit￾ted James Watt and Matthew Boulton to bore a

true hole in the cylinder of their steam engine.

Thus, the age of the engine-powered industrial

revolution was born.

Industrial Revolution

With power available to drive them, hand

tools were rapidly converted into machine tools,

and thus the industrial revolution began in Eu￾rope and the United States. The boring machine

developed by John Wilkinson in 1775 led to the

development of the first engine lathe in 1794 by

Henry Maudsley. A few years later, he added a

lead screw and change gears to that lathe, thus

giving birth to the screw cutting lathe. The need

for further versatility in machine tools then

inspired the invention of the planer in 1817 by

Richard Roberts of Manchester, England and

the horizontal milling machine in 1818 by Eli

Whitney of New Haven, Connecticut. Those three

machines, the lathe, planer, and mill, not only

provided a basis for producing a large variety

of products, but also enabled the entrepreneurs of

that era to build additional similar machines

that could be used to produce other products.

During the late 1700s and early 1800s, most

manufacturing was performed in family work￾shops and small factories. The availability of

power to drive machine tools was, to a great

extent, a controlling factor in the movement and

expansion of the industrial revolution. As is evi￾dent from the timetable in Table 1-1, the steam

engine was the most significant source of power

for the machines of production for more than 50

years. In the early periods, a centralized engine

was used to drive line-shafts which, in turn,

provided power to many individual machines.

Later on, as steam engines became more com￾pact and efficient, smaller engines were placed

in strategic positions around a factory to drive

machine groups.

Probably one of the most significant develop￾ments occurring during the early stages of the

industrial revolution was the introduction of

the concept of interchangeable manufacture.

(Interchangeable manufacture means that the

parts for one particular product will fit any other

product of that same model.) This idea appar￾ently manifested itself almost simultaneously

in Europe and the United States in the late

1700s via the use of templates or patterns, often

referred to as filing jigs. Eli Whitney was one of

the early pioneers to take advantage of this con￾cept in the building of musket parts for the U. S.

military in about 1798. Although the concept of

interchangeable manufacture is usually credited

to Eli Whitney, it should be pointed out that the

accomplishment of this process through the use

of filing jigs was mostly a manual operation, not

a machine process.

The credit for machine-produced interchange￾able manufacture should probably go to Elisha

Root, who was the chief engineer for the Colt

Armory in Hartford, Connecticut. In about 1835,

Root and Samuel Colt engineered the machine

production of over 300,000 units of different

models of the Colt revolver to a significant de￾gree of precision. This accomplishment is often

heralded as a milestone in the development of

the concept of interchangeable manufacture and

mass production in the U. S.

3

Manufacturing Processes & Materials, Fifth Edition Chapter 1: Manufacturing Foundations

Another significant milestone in the indus￾trialization process was the development of

precision measuring devices in about 1830 by

Joseph Whitworth. As a protégé of Henry Maud￾sley, Whitworth pioneered early screw-thread

designs and then incorporated that work into

the development of the micrometer screw. The

Table 1-1. Manufacturing process and

machine tool design timetable

2000

Microsintering systems (1999)

Electron beam melting systems (1997)

Selective laser sintering systems (1992)

Fused decomposition modeling (1991)

Friction stir welding (1991)

First commercial stereolithography apparatus (1988)

Coated cutting tools (1974)

Numerically controlled jig boring machine (1974)

Wire electric discharge machining (1969)

Flexible manufacturing (1969)

Silicon chip (1969)

Programmable logic controller (1968)

Industrial robots (1963)

NC machining center (1958)

Transistor (1957)

Synthetic diamond (1955)

Numerically controlled vertical milling machine (1953)

Stored program digital computer (1951)

1950

Electronic digital computer (1946)

Electrical discharge machining (1943)

Tungsten-carbide cutting tool (1926)

Stainless steel (1913)

1900

Generating-type gear shaper (1899)

High-speed cutting tools (1898)

Aluminum oxide (1893)

Silicon carbide abrasive (1891)

Gear hobbing machine (1887)

Band saw blades (1885)

Hydraulic forging press (1885)

Electric motors (1885)

Surface grinder (1880)

Board drop hammer (1880)

Automatic turret lathe (1873)

Four-stroke gas engine (1873)

Universal grinding machine (1868)

Dynamo electric generator (1867)

Open-hearth steelmaking (1866)

Tool steel cutting tools (1865)

Water-cooled gas engine (1860)

Turret lathe (1855)

Milling-type gear cutter (1855)

Two-stroke gas engine (1855)

1850

Drill press (1840)

Gravity drop hammer (1839)

Mass production (1835)

Gas engine (1833)

Precision measuring screw (1830)

Gage blocks (1830)

Reproducing lathe (1820)

Horizontal milling machine (1818)

Planer (1817)

Thread-cutting lathe (1800)

Electroplating (1800)

1800

Interchangeable manufacture (1798)

Engine lathe (1794)

Double-acting steam engine (1787)

Steam-powered coining press (1786)

Horizontal boring mill (1775)

Atmospheric steam engine (1775)

ability to measure was, of course, a fundamen￾tal prerequisite to a successful interchangeable

manufacturing process.

The spectrum of manufacturing capability

was further enhanced in about 1840 by the

development of a drill press with power feed by

John Nasmyth, also a student of Henry Maud￾sley. About 15 years later, mass-production

capability in the U. S. was greatly improved by

the introduction of the turret lathe by Elisha

Root and Samuel Colt. Forty years or so later,

the development of the surface grinding machine

and the metal saw blade completed the stable

of machine tools available to the early manu￾facturer. Thus, during the late 1800s and early

1900s, these basic machine tools: the boring mill,

lathe and turret lathe, milling machine, broach,

planer, shaper, surface grinder, and saw, served

as the workhorses for the ever-expanding indus￾trial capacity in Europe and the United States.

Automation

As indicated in Table 1-1, a large proportion

of the basic machine tools used in discrete parts

manufacture were introduced prior to 1900.

These machines and the engine power required

to drive them were key elements in the indus￾trial revolution. In the early days of that period,

the machines were essentially manually oper￾ated with the quality and quantity of product

output being almost totally dependent on the