Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, Third Edition

Handbook of

Third Edition

Water and Wastewater

Treatment Plant

Operations

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Handbook of

Third Edition

Water and Wastewater

Treatment Plant

Operations

Frank R. Spellman

CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Group

6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300

Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20130305

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-5338-5 (eBook - PDF)

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v

Contents

Foreword ...............................................................................................................................................................................xxxvii

Preface to Third Edition.........................................................................................................................................................xxxix

Preface to First and Second Editions..........................................................................................................................................xli

To the Reader........................................................................................................................................................................... xliii

Author ........................................................................................................................................................................................ xlv

Water: The New Oil? ...............................................................................................................................................................xlvii

Section I Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview

Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations............................................................................. 3

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3

1.2 Sick Water..................................................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Publicly Owned Treatment Works: Cash Cows or Cash Dogs? ................................................................... 5

1.4 The Paradigm Shift ...................................................................................................................................... 6

1.4.1 A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done............................................................. 6

1.5 Multiple-Barrier Concept ............................................................................................................................. 8

1.5.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach and Wastewater Operations............................................................... 8

1.6 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations.............................................................. 9

1.6.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations....................................................... 9

1.6.2 Privatization and/or Reengineering............................................................................................. 11

1.6.3 Benchmarking ............................................................................................................................. 12

1.6.3.1 What Benchmarking Is ......................................................................................... 13

1.6.3.2 Potential Results of Benchmarking....................................................................... 13

1.6.3.3 Targets................................................................................................................... 13

1.6.3.4 Benchmarking Process.......................................................................................... 13

1.6.3.5 Benchmarking Steps ............................................................................................. 13

1.6.3.6 Collection of Baseline Data and Tracking Energy Use......................................... 14

1.6.3.7 Baseline Audit ....................................................................................................... 15

1.6.4 Technical vs. Professional Management ..................................................................................... 17

1.6.5 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability..................................................................... 18

1.6.5.1 Sustainable Water/Wastewater Infrastructure....................................................... 19

1.6.5.2 Maintaining Sustainable Infrastructure ................................................................ 19

1.6.5.3 Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Gap................................................................... 20

1.6.5.4 Energy Efficiency: Water/Wastewater Treatment Operations............................... 20

Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................... 20

References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................................................... 21

Chapter 2 Water/Wastewater Operators................................................................................................................................. 23

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 23

2.2 Setting the Record Straight ........................................................................................................................ 24

2.3 Computer-Literate Jack or Jill .................................................................................................................... 24

2.4 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders................................................................................................ 25

2.5 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions................................................................................ 25

2.6 Operator Certification and Licensure......................................................................................................... 26

Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................... 27

References and Suggested Readings..................................................................................................................... 27

vi Contents

Chapter 3 Upgrading Security ............................................................................................................................................... 29

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 29

3.2 Consequences of 9/11 ................................................................................................................................. 29

3.3 Security Hardware/Devices........................................................................................................................ 31

3.3.1 Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices ........................................................................ 31

3.3.1.1 Aboveground Outdoor Equipment Enclosures...................................................... 31

3.3.1.2 Alarms................................................................................................................... 32

3.3.1.3 Backflow Prevention Devices................................................................................ 33

3.3.1.4 Barriers.................................................................................................................. 34

3.3.1.5 Biometric Security Systems.................................................................................. 36

3.3.1.6 Card Identification/Access/Tracking Systems....................................................... 37

3.3.1.7 Fences.................................................................................................................... 38

3.3.1.8 Films for Glass Shatter Protection ........................................................................ 39

3.3.1.9 Fire Hydrant Locks ............................................................................................... 39

3.3.1.10 Hatch Security....................................................................................................... 39

3.3.1.11 Intrusion Sensors................................................................................................... 40

3.3.1.12 Ladder Access Control.......................................................................................... 40

3.3.1.13 Locks..................................................................................................................... 40

3.3.1.14 Manhole Intrusion Sensors.................................................................................... 41

3.3.1.15 Manhole Locks...................................................................................................... 41

3.3.1.16 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages............ 41

3.3.1.17 Reservoir Covers................................................................................................... 42

3.3.1.18 Security for Side-Hinged Doors............................................................................ 42

3.3.1.19 Valve Lockout Devices.......................................................................................... 43

3.3.1.20 Security for Vents.................................................................................................. 44

3.3.1.21 Visual Surveillance Monitoring............................................................................ 44

3.3.2 Water Monitoring Devices.......................................................................................................... 45

3.3.2.1 Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination 45

3.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors: Arsenic Measurement System................................................ 46

3.3.2.3 Chemical Sensor: Adapted BOD Analyzer........................................................... 46

3.3.2.4 Chemical Sensor: Total Organic Carbon Analyzer............................................... 46

3.3.2.5 Chemical Sensors: Chlorine Measurement System .............................................. 47

3.3.2.6 Chemical Sensors: Portable Cyanide Analyzer .................................................... 47

3.3.2.7 Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs........................................................... 48

3.3.2.8 Radiation Detection Equipment ............................................................................ 48

3.3.2.9 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets............................. 49

3.3.2.10 Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters.................................................................... 50

3.3.3 Communication and Integration.................................................................................................. 50

3.3.3.1 Electronic Controllers ........................................................................................... 50

3.3.3.2 Two-Way Radios.................................................................................................... 50

3.3.3.3 Wireless Data Communications............................................................................ 51

3.3.4 Cyber Protection Devices............................................................................................................ 51

3.3.4.1 Antivirus and Pest-Eradication Software.............................................................. 51

3.3.4.2 Firewalls................................................................................................................ 52

3.3.4.3 Network Intrusion Hardware and Software .......................................................... 52

3.4 SCADA....................................................................................................................................................... 53

3.4.1 What Is SCADA? ........................................................................................................................ 54

3.4.2 SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater Systems ................................................................. 54

3.4.3 SCADA Vulnerabilities............................................................................................................... 54

3.4.4 Increasing Risk............................................................................................................................ 56

3.4.5 Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities.............................................................. 56

3.4.6 Cyber Threats to Control Systems.............................................................................................. 57

3.4.7 Securing Control Systems........................................................................................................... 57

3.4.8 Steps to Improve SCADA Security............................................................................................. 58

Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................... 61

References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................................................... 61

Contents vii

Chapter 4 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability............................................................................................... 63

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 63

4.2 Pumping System Energy Conservation Measures...................................................................................... 63

4.2.1 Pumping System Design ............................................................................................................. 64

4.2.2 Pump Motors............................................................................................................................... 65

4.2.2.1 Motor Efficiency and Efficiency Standards .......................................................... 66

4.2.2.2 Motor Management Programs............................................................................... 66

4.2.2.3 Innovative and Emerging Technologies................................................................ 67

4.2.3 Power Factor................................................................................................................................ 67

4.2.4 Variable Frequency Drives.......................................................................................................... 69

4.2.4.1 Energy Savings...................................................................................................... 69

4.2.4.2 Applications........................................................................................................... 69

4.2.4.3 Strategies for Wastewater Pumping Stations......................................................... 69

4.3 Design and Control of Aeration Systems ................................................................................................... 69

4.3.1 ECMs for Aeration Systems........................................................................................................ 70

4.3.1.1 ECMs for Diffused Aeration Systems................................................................... 70

4.3.1.2 ECMs for Mechanical Aerators ............................................................................ 72

4.3.2 Control of the Aeration Process.................................................................................................. 72

4.3.2.1 Automated DO Control ......................................................................................... 72

4.3.3 Emerging Technologies Using Control Parameters Other than DO ........................................... 85

4.3.3.1 Respirometry......................................................................................................... 85

4.3.3.2 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance................................................. 85

4.3.3.3 Critical Oxygen Point Control Determination ...................................................... 86

4.3.3.4 Off-Gas Analysis................................................................................................... 86

4.3.4 Innovative and Emerging Control Strategies for Biological Nitrogen Removal......................... 86

4.3.4.1 SymBio® ................................................................................................................ 86

4.3.4.2 Bioprocess Intelligent Optimization System (BIOS) ............................................ 87

4.4 Blowers....................................................................................................................................................... 87

4.4.1 High-Speed Gearless (Turbo) Blowers........................................................................................ 89

4.4.2 Single-Stage Centrifugal Blowers with Inlet Guide Vanes and Variable Diffuser Vanes.......... 89

4.4.3 New Diffuser Technology ........................................................................................................... 90

4.4.3.1 Fine Bubble Aeration............................................................................................. 90

4.4.3.2 Fine Bubble Aeration Application Examples........................................................ 90

4.4.4 Preventing Diffuser Fouling........................................................................................................ 91

4.5 Innovative and Emerging Energy Conservation Measures........................................................................ 91

4.5.1 UV Disinfection .......................................................................................................................... 92

4.5.1.1 Design.................................................................................................................... 93

4.5.1.2 Operation and Maintenance .................................................................................. 94

4.5.2 Membrane Bioreactors................................................................................................................ 94

4.5.3 Anoxic and Anaerobic Zone Mixing .......................................................................................... 95

4.5.3.1 Hyperbolic Mixing................................................................................................ 95

4.5.3.2 Pulsed Large Bubble Mixing ................................................................................ 96

Chapter Review Question...................................................................................................................................... 97

References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................................................... 97

Chapter 5 Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology.................................................................................... 99

5.1 Setting the Stage......................................................................................................................................... 99

5.2 Treatment Process Models.......................................................................................................................... 99

5.2.1 Additional Wastewater Treatment Models.................................................................................. 99

5.2.1.1 Green Bay, Wisconsin, Metropolitan Sewerage District....................................... 99

5.2.1.2 Sheboygan, Michigan, Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant.............................101

5.2.1.3 Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant .............................................................. 102

5.2.1.4 City of Bartlett, Tennessee, Wastewater Treatment Plant................................... 103

5.2.1.5 Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission Western Branch WWTP,

Prince Georges County, Maryland...................................................................... 104

viii Contents

5.2.1.6 San Jose/Santa Clara, California, Water Pollution Control Plant ....................... 105

5.2.1.7 Waco, Texas, Metropolitan Area Regional

Sewer System Wastewater Treatment Facility .................................................... 107

5.3 Key Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations Used in Water and Wastewater Operations.......................... 108

5.3.1 Definitions................................................................................................................................. 109

5.3.2 Acronyms and Abbreviations.....................................................................................................115

Chapter Review Questions...................................................................................................................................116

References and Recommended Reading ..............................................................................................................117

Section II Water/Wastewater Operations: Math, Physics, and Technical Aspects

Chapter 6 Water/Wastewater Math Operations ................................................................................................................... 121

6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 121

6.2 Calculation Steps...................................................................................................................................... 121

6.3 Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols....................................................................................................... 121

6.4 Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations............................................................................................... 121

6.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median............................................................ 121

6.4.2 Units and Conversions............................................................................................................... 124

6.4.2.1 Temperature Conversions.................................................................................... 124

6.4.2.2 Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million)............................................................. 125

6.4.3 Area and Volume....................................................................................................................... 125

6.4.4 Force, Pressure, and Head......................................................................................................... 125

6.4.5 Flow Conversions...................................................................................................................... 127

6.4.6 Flow Calculations...................................................................................................................... 128

6.4.6.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates ................................................................................... 128

6.4.6.2 Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank .................................... 128

6.4.6.3 Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank...................................................................... 129

6.4.6.4 Flow through a Full Pipeline............................................................................... 129

6.4.6.5 Velocity Calculations .......................................................................................... 129

6.4.6.6 Average Flow Rate Calculations......................................................................... 130

6.4.6.7 Flow Conversion Calculations............................................................................. 130

6.4.7 Detention Time.......................................................................................................................... 130

6.4.8 Hydraulic Detention Time..........................................................................................................131

6.4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days.......................................................................131

6.4.8.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours.....................................................................131

6.4.8.3 Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes .................................................................131

6.4.9 Chemical Dosage Calculations ................................................................................................. 132

6.4.9.1 Dosage Formula Pie Chart .................................................................................. 132

6.4.9.2 Chlorine Dosage.................................................................................................. 132

6.4.9.3 Hypochlorite Dosage........................................................................................... 133

6.4.10 Percent Removal........................................................................................................................ 134

6.4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor ......................................................................... 134

6.4.12 Specific Gravity......................................................................................................................... 135

6.4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge ............................................................................ 135

6.4.14 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation................................................................................ 135

6.4.14.1 Calculating Feed Rate ......................................................................................... 135

6.4.14.2 Calculating Solution Strength ............................................................................. 135

6.4.15 Filtration.................................................................................................................................... 136

6.4.15.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration........................................................................ 136

6.4.15.2 Filter Backwash................................................................................................... 136

6.4.16 Water Distribution System Calculations................................................................................... 136

6.4.16.1 Water Flow Velocity............................................................................................ 136

6.4.16.2 Storage Tank Calculations................................................................................... 138

6.4.16.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations................................................... 138

6.4.17 Complex Conversions................................................................................................................ 139

Contents ix

6.4.17.1 Concentration to Quantity................................................................................... 139

6.4.17.2 Quantity to Concentration................................................................................... 139

6.4.17.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate ....................................................................... 140

6.5 Applied Math Operations......................................................................................................................... 140

6.5.1 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance..................................................................... 140

6.5.2 Mass Balance for Settling Tanks............................................................................................... 140

6.5.3 Mass Balance Using BOD Removal ..........................................................................................141

6.5.4 Measuring Plant Performance....................................................................................................141

6.5.4.1 Plant Performance/Efficiency ............................................................................. 142

6.5.4.2 Unit Process Performance/Efficiency ................................................................. 142

6.5.4.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge ...................................................... 142

6.6 Water Math Concepts............................................................................................................................... 142

6.6.1 Water Sources and Storage Calculations................................................................................... 142

6.6.2 Water Source Calculations........................................................................................................ 142

6.6.2.1 Well Drawdown................................................................................................... 142

6.6.2.2 Well Yield.............................................................................................................143

6.6.2.3 Specific Yield .......................................................................................................143

6.6.2.4 Well Casing Disinfection .....................................................................................143

6.6.2.5 Deep-Well Turbine Pump Calculations............................................................... 144

6.6.2.6 Vertical Turbine Pumps....................................................................................... 144

6.6.3 Water Storage Calculations....................................................................................................... 144

6.6.4 Copper Sulfate Dosing Calculations......................................................................................... 145

6.6.5 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations .............................................................................. 145

6.6.5.1 Coagulation ......................................................................................................... 145

6.6.5.2 Flocculation......................................................................................................... 146

6.6.5.3 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations ........................................................ 146

6.6.6 Chemical Usage Calculations.................................................................................................... 150

6.6.7 Sedimentation Calculations....................................................................................................... 151

6.6.7.1 Calculating Tank Volume.................................................................................... 151

6.6.7.2 Detention Time.................................................................................................... 151

6.6.7.3 Surface Loading Rate.......................................................................................... 151

6.6.7.4 Mean Flow Velocity ............................................................................................ 152

6.6.7.5 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)........................................................... 152

6.6.7.6 Percent Settled Biosolids..................................................................................... 153

6.6.7.7 Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L)...................................................................... 153

6.6.7.8 Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day)..................................................................... 155

6.6.7.9 Determining Lime Dosage (g/min)..................................................................... 155

6.6.8 Filtration Calculations............................................................................................................... 155

6.6.8.1 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm)........................................................................ 156

6.6.8.2 Filtration Rate...................................................................................................... 157

6.6.8.3 Unit Filter Run Volume (UFRV)......................................................................... 157

6.6.8.4 Backwash Rate .................................................................................................... 158

6.6.8.5 Backwash Rise Rate ............................................................................................ 159

6.6.8.6 Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal)........................................................ 159

6.6.8.7 Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft).................................................... 159

6.6.8.8 Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm).......................................................................... 160

6.6.8.9 Percent Product Water Used for Backwashing.................................................... 160

6.6.8.10 Percent Mud Ball Volume ................................................................................... 160

6.6.8.11 Filter Bed Expansion............................................................................................161

6.6.9 Water Chlorination Calculations................................................................................................161

6.6.9.1 Chlorine Disinfection...........................................................................................161

6.6.9.2 Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) .........................................................161

6.6.9.3 Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual ........................................... 162

6.6.9.4 Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate .................................................................... 164

6.6.9.5 Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate..................................................... 165

6.6.9.6 Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions........................................................... 165

6.6.9.7 Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite....................................... 165

x Contents

6.6.10 Chemical Use Calculations....................................................................................................... 166

6.6.11 Fluoridation Calculations.......................................................................................................... 166

6.6.11.1 Water Fluoridation............................................................................................... 166

6.6.11.2 Fluoride Compounds........................................................................................... 166

6.6.11.3 Optimal Fluoride Levels ..................................................................................... 167

6.6.11.4 Fluoridation Process Calculations....................................................................... 168

6.6.12 Water Softening Calculations.................................................................................................... 172

6.6.12.1 Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 ........................................................... 172

6.6.12.2 Calculating Magnesium Hardness as CaCO3 ...................................................... 172

6.6.12.3 Calculating Total Hardness................................................................................. 172

6.6.12.4 Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness ...........................................173

6.6.12.5 Alkalinity Determination.....................................................................................174

6.6.12.6 Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness...........................................174

6.6.12.7 Recarbonation Calculation...................................................................................175

6.6.12.8 Calculating Feed Rates.........................................................................................176

6.6.12.9 Ion-Exchange Capacity ........................................................................................176

6.6.12.10 Water Treatment Capacity................................................................................... 177

6.6.12.11 Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required).............................. 177

6.6.12.12 Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration ...........................................................178

6.7 Wastewater Math Concepts.......................................................................................................................178

6.7.1 Preliminary Treatment Calculations..........................................................................................178

6.7.1.1 Screening..............................................................................................................178

6.7.1.2 Grit Removal ....................................................................................................... 179

6.7.2 Primary Treatment Calculations................................................................................................181

6.7.2.1 Process Control ....................................................................................................181

6.7.2.2 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overflow Rate) .............. 182

6.7.2.3 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)........................................................... 182

6.7.2.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lb/day)................................................... 182

6.7.3 Trickling Filter Process Calculations........................................................................................ 183

6.7.3.1 Hydraulic Loading .............................................................................................. 183

6.7.3.2 Organic Loading Rate ......................................................................................... 184

6.7.3.3 Recirculation Flow .............................................................................................. 184

6.7.4 Rotating Biological Contactor Calculations.............................................................................. 184

6.7.4.1 Hydraulic Loading Rate ...................................................................................... 185

6.7.4.2 Soluble BOD........................................................................................................ 185

6.7.4.3 Organic Loading Rate ......................................................................................... 186

6.7.4.4 Total Media Area................................................................................................. 186

6.7.5 Activated Biosolids Calculations............................................................................................... 186

6.7.5.1 Moving Averages................................................................................................. 186

6.7.5.2 BOD or COD Loading ........................................................................................ 187

6.7.5.3 Solids Inventory .................................................................................................. 187

6.7.5.4 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio) ........................................................ 187

6.7.5.5 Gould Sludge Age ............................................................................................... 189

6.7.5.6 Mean Cell Residence Time ................................................................................. 189

6.7.5.7 Estimating Return Rates from SSV60 .................................................................. 190

6.7.5.8 Sludge Volume Index .......................................................................................... 190

6.7.5.9 Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids ..................................................191

6.7.5.10 Biosolids Waste Based on Mass Balance .............................................................191

6.7.5.11 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time..........................................................................191

6.7.6 Treatment Ponds Calculations................................................................................................... 192

6.7.6.1 Treatment Pond Parameters ................................................................................ 192

6.7.6.2 Treatment Pond Process Control......................................................................... 192

6.7.6.3 Hydraulic Detention Time (Days) ....................................................................... 192

6.7.6.4 BOD Loading ...................................................................................................... 193

6.7.6.5 Organic Loading Rate ......................................................................................... 193

6.7.6.6 BOD Removal Efficiency.................................................................................... 193

Contents xi

6.7.6.7 Population Loading ............................................................................................. 193

6.7.6.8 Hydraulic Loading (In./Day) (Overflow Rate).................................................... 193

6.7.7 Chemical Dosing Calculations.................................................................................................. 193

6.7.7.1 Chemical Feed Rate ............................................................................................ 194

6.7.7.2 Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual............................................................... 194

6.7.7.3 Hypochlorite Dosage........................................................................................... 195

6.7.8 Chemical Solution Calculations................................................................................................ 196

6.7.8.1 Solution Chemical Feeder Setting (gpd)............................................................. 196

6.7.8.2 Chemical Feed Pump: Percent Stroke Setting .................................................... 197

6.7.8.3 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (mL/min)...................................................... 197

6.7.8.4 Chemical Feed Calibration.................................................................................. 197

6.7.8.5 Average Use......................................................................................................... 198

6.7.8.6 Process Residuals: Biosolids Production and Pumping ...................................... 199

6.7.8.7 Primary and Secondary Solids Production......................................................... 199

6.7.8.8 Primary Clarifier Solids Production ................................................................... 199

6.7.8.9 Secondary Clarifier Solids Production................................................................ 199

6.7.8.10 Percent Solids......................................................................................................200

6.7.8.11 Biosolids Pumping ..............................................................................................200

6.7.8.12 Biosolids Thickening........................................................................................... 201

6.7.8.13 Centrifuge Thickening ........................................................................................ 203

6.7.8.14 Biosolids Digestion/Stabilization........................................................................ 203

6.7.8.15 Aerobic Digestion Process Control ..................................................................... 203

6.7.8.16 Anaerobic Digestion Process Control ................................................................. 204

6.7.9 Biosolids Dewatering and Disposal Calculations ..................................................................... 205

6.7.9.1 Pressure Filtration ............................................................................................... 206

6.7.9.2 Plate and Frame Press......................................................................................... 206

6.7.9.3 Belt Filter Press................................................................................................... 206

6.7.9.4 Rotary Vacuum Filter Dewatering ...................................................................... 208

6.7.9.5 Sand Drying Beds ............................................................................................... 209

6.7.10 Biosolids Disposal Calculations.................................................................................................210

6.7.10.1 Land Application..................................................................................................210

6.7.10.2 Biosolids to Compost........................................................................................... 212

6.7.10.3 Composting Calculations.................................................................................... 212

6.8 Water/Wastewater Laboratory Calculations............................................................................................. 212

6.8.1 Faucet Flow Estimation............................................................................................................. 212

6.8.2 Service Line Flushing Time...................................................................................................... 213

6.8.3 Composite Sampling ................................................................................................................. 213

6.8.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand....................................................................................................214

6.8.4.1 BOD5 (Unseeded).................................................................................................214

6.8.4.2 BOD5 (Seeded) .................................................................................................... 215

6.8.4.3 BOD 7-Day Moving Average .............................................................................. 215

6.8.5 Moles and Molarity ................................................................................................................... 215

6.8.5.1 Moles................................................................................................................... 215

6.8.5.2 Normality .............................................................................................................216

6.8.6 Settleability (Activated Biosolids)..............................................................................................216

6.8.7 Settleable Solids.........................................................................................................................216

6.8.8 Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Solids, and Volatile Solids ..........................................................217

6.8.9 Wastewater Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids ..................................................218

6.8.10 Biosolids Volume Index and Biosolids Density Index ...............................................................218

Chapter Review Questions...................................................................................................................................219

References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 229

Chapter 7 Science Fundamentals......................................................................................................................................... 231

7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 231

7.2 Force and Motion...................................................................................................................................... 231

xii Contents

7.2.1 Position and Time...................................................................................................................... 231

7.2.2 Speed and Velocity.................................................................................................................... 231

7.3 Acceleration.............................................................................................................................................. 233

7.3.1 Acceleration of Gravity ............................................................................................................. 233

7.4 Force ......................................................................................................................................................... 233

7.5 Newton’s Laws of Motion......................................................................................................................... 234

7.5.1 Newton’s First Law.................................................................................................................... 234

7.5.2 Newton’s Second Law ............................................................................................................... 234

7.5.3 Newton’s Third Law.................................................................................................................. 234

7.6 Work ......................................................................................................................................................... 234

7.7 Energy....................................................................................................................................................... 235

7.7.1 Potential Energy ........................................................................................................................ 235

7.7.2 Kinetic Energy .......................................................................................................................... 235

7.8 Momentum ............................................................................................................................................... 235

7.9 Circular Motion ........................................................................................................................................ 236

7.10 Angular Motion ........................................................................................................................................ 236

7.11 Angular Velocity ...................................................................................................................................... 236

7.12 Angular Acceleration ............................................................................................................................... 237

7.13 Torque....................................................................................................................................................... 237

7.14 Angular Momentum................................................................................................................................. 237

7.15 Gravity...................................................................................................................................................... 237

7.16 Thermal Properties................................................................................................................................... 237

7.16.1 Specific Heat ............................................................................................................................. 238

7.17 States of Matter ........................................................................................................................................ 238

7.17.1 Gas Laws................................................................................................................................... 238

7.17.2 Liquids and Solutions................................................................................................................ 238

7.18 Wave Motion and Sound........................................................................................................................... 239

7.18.1 Waves......................................................................................................................................... 239

7.18.1.1 Wave Characteristics........................................................................................... 239

7.18.1.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves ................................................................... 239

7.18.2 Physics of Sound ....................................................................................................................... 239

7.18.2.1 Octave Bands.......................................................................................................240

7.18.2.2 Sound Pressure ....................................................................................................240

7.19 Light.......................................................................................................................................................... 241

7.19.1 Speed of Light ........................................................................................................................... 241

7.19.2 Sources of Light ........................................................................................................................ 241

7.19.3 Luminous Intensity of Light...................................................................................................... 241

7.19.4 Laws of Reflection and Refraction ............................................................................................ 242

7.19.4.1 Laws of Reflection............................................................................................... 242

7.19.4.2 Laws of Refraction .............................................................................................. 242

7.19.5 Polarization ............................................................................................................................... 243

7.20 Color......................................................................................................................................................... 243

Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 243

Chapter 8 Blueprint Reading ............................................................................................................................................... 245

8.1 Blueprints: The Universal Language........................................................................................................ 245

8.1.1 Blueprint Standards................................................................................................................... 246

8.1.1.1 Standards-Setting Organizations ........................................................................ 246

8.1.1.2 ANSI Standards for Blueprint Sheets.................................................................. 246

8.1.2 Finding Information .................................................................................................................. 247

8.1.2.1 Detail Drawings .................................................................................................. 247

8.1.2.2 Assembly Drawings............................................................................................. 247

8.1.3 Title Block ................................................................................................................................. 247

8.1.4 Drawing Notes........................................................................................................................... 250

8.1.4.1 General Notes...................................................................................................... 250

8.1.4.2 Local Notes ......................................................................................................... 250

Contents xiii

8.2 Units of Measurement .............................................................................................................................. 252

8.2.1 Fractions and Decimal Fractions .............................................................................................. 252

8.3 Alphabet of Lines..................................................................................................................................... 253

8.3.1 Just a Bunch of Drawn Lines?................................................................................................... 253

8.3.2 Visible Lines.............................................................................................................................. 254

8.3.3 Hidden Lines............................................................................................................................. 254

8.3.4 Section Lines............................................................................................................................. 254

8.3.5 Center Lines.............................................................................................................................. 254

8.3.6 Dimension and Extension Lines................................................................................................ 254

8.3.7 Leaders...................................................................................................................................... 254

8.3.8 Cutting Plane or Viewing Plane Lines...................................................................................... 254

8.3.9 Break Lines ............................................................................................................................... 254

8.3.10 Phantom Lines........................................................................................................................... 256

8.3.11 Line Gauge ................................................................................................................................ 256

8.3.12 Views......................................................................................................................................... 256

8.3.12.1 Orthographic Projections.................................................................................... 256

8.3.12.2 One-View Drawings............................................................................................ 259

8.3.12.3 Two-View Drawings............................................................................................ 259

8.3.12.4 Three-View Drawings......................................................................................... 259

8.3.12.5 Auxiliary Views.................................................................................................. 260

8.4 Dimensions and Shop Notes..................................................................................................................... 262

8.4.1 Dimensioning ............................................................................................................................ 262

8.4.2 Decimal and Size Dimensions.................................................................................................. 262

8.4.3 Definition of Dimensioning Terms............................................................................................ 263

8.4.3.1 Nominal Size....................................................................................................... 263

8.4.3.2 Basic Size ............................................................................................................ 263

8.4.3.3 Allowance............................................................................................................ 263

8.4.3.4 Design Size.......................................................................................................... 263

8.4.3.5 Limits .................................................................................................................. 263

8.4.3.6 Tolerance ............................................................................................................. 264

8.4.3.7 Datum.................................................................................................................. 264

8.4.4 Types of Dimensions................................................................................................................. 264

8.4.4.1 Linear Dimensions.............................................................................................. 264

8.4.4.2 Angular Dimensions ........................................................................................... 264

8.4.4.3 Reference Dimensions......................................................................................... 265

8.4.4.4 Tabular Dimensions............................................................................................. 265

8.4.4.5 Arrowless Dimensions ........................................................................................ 265

8.4.5 Shop Notes................................................................................................................................. 265

8.5 Machine Drawings ................................................................................................................................... 266

8.5.1 Centrifugal Pump Drawing....................................................................................................... 266

8.5.1.1 Centrifugal Pump Attributes............................................................................... 266

8.5.1.2 How a Centrifugal Pump Works......................................................................... 266

8.5.1.3 Centrifugal Pump Components........................................................................... 267

8.5.2 Packing Gland Drawing ............................................................................................................ 267

8.5.3 Submersible Pump Drawing...................................................................................................... 267

8.5.4 Turbine Pump Drawing............................................................................................................. 268

8.6 Sheet Metal Drawings.............................................................................................................................. 268

8.6.1 Sheet Metal................................................................................................................................ 268

8.6.2 Dimension Calculations ............................................................................................................ 268

8.6.2.1 Calculations for Allowances in Bend.................................................................. 268

8.6.2.2 Set-Back Table..................................................................................................... 268

8.6.2.3 Formulae Used to Determine Developed Length ............................................... 269

8.6.3 Hems and Joints ........................................................................................................................ 270

8.7 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings......................................................................................................... 270

8.7.1 Standard Hydraulic System....................................................................................................... 270

8.7.2 Standard Pneumatic System...................................................................................................... 271

8.7.3 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems: Similarities and Differences............................................. 271

xiv Contents

8.7.4 Types of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings........................................................................... 271

8.7.5 Graphic Symbols for Fluid Power Systems............................................................................... 272

8.7.5.1 Symbols for Methods of Operation (Controls).................................................... 272

8.7.5.2 Symbols for Rotary Devices................................................................................ 272

8.7.5.3 Symbols for Lines ............................................................................................... 272

8.7.5.4 Symbols for Valves.............................................................................................. 272

8.7.5.5 Symbols for Miscellaneous Units........................................................................ 274

8.7.6 Supplementary Information Accompanying Graphic Drawings .............................................. 274

8.7.6.1 Sequence of Operations....................................................................................... 274

8.7.6.2 Solenoid Chart..................................................................................................... 274

8.7.6.3 Bill of Materials .................................................................................................. 275

8.8 Welding Blueprints and Symbols............................................................................................................. 275

8.8.1 Welding Processes..................................................................................................................... 275

8.8.2 Types of Welded Joints.............................................................................................................. 276

8.8.2.1 Butt Joints............................................................................................................ 276

8.8.2.2 Lap Joints ............................................................................................................ 276

8.8.2.3 Tee Joints............................................................................................................. 276

8.8.2.4 Edge Joints .......................................................................................................... 276

8.8.2.5 Corner Joints ....................................................................................................... 276

8.8.3 Basic Weld Symbols.................................................................................................................. 276

8.8.3.1 Symbols for Arc and Gas Welds......................................................................... 276

8.8.3.2 Symbols for Resistance Welds ............................................................................ 276

8.8.3.3 Symbols for Supplementary Welds..................................................................... 277

8.8.4 The Welding Symbol................................................................................................................. 277

8.8.4.1 Reference Line .................................................................................................... 277

8.8.4.2 Arrowhead........................................................................................................... 277

8.8.4.3 Weld Symbol ....................................................................................................... 278

8.8.4.4 Dimensions.......................................................................................................... 278

8.8.4.5 Special Symbols.................................................................................................. 279

8.8.4.6 Tail....................................................................................................................... 280

8.9 Electrical Drawings.................................................................................................................................. 280

8.9.1 Troubleshooting and Electrical Drawings................................................................................. 280

8.9.2 Electrical Symbols .................................................................................................................... 280

8.9.2.1 Electrical Voltage and Power .............................................................................. 280

8.9.2.2 What Is Voltage? ................................................................................................. 280

8.9.2.3 How Is Voltage Produced? .................................................................................. 281

8.9.2.4 How Is Electricity Delivered to the Plant?.......................................................... 281

8.9.2.5 Electric Power ..................................................................................................... 281

8.9.2.6 Types of Electrical Drawings.............................................................................. 281

8.9.2.7 Types of Architectural Drawings........................................................................ 282

8.9.2.8 Circuit Drawings................................................................................................. 282

8.9.2.9 Ladder Drawing................................................................................................... 283

8.10 AC&R Drawings ...................................................................................................................................... 284

8.10.1 Refrigeration.............................................................................................................................. 284

8.10.1.1 Basic Principles of Refrigeration......................................................................... 284

8.10.1.2 Refrigeration System Components...................................................................... 284

8.10.1.3 Refrigeration System Operation.......................................................................... 284

8.10.1.4 Using Refrigeration Drawings in Troubleshooting ............................................. 285

8.10.1.5 Refrigeration Component Drawings ................................................................... 286

8.10.2 Air Conditioning ....................................................................................................................... 286

8.10.2.1 Operation of a Simple Air Conditioning System ................................................ 286

8.10.1.2 Design of Air Conditioning Systems .................................................................. 287

8.10.1.3 Air Conditioning Drawings................................................................................. 287

8.11 Schematics and Symbols.......................................................................................................................... 287

8.11.1 How to Use Schematic Diagrams.............................................................................................. 288

8.11.2 Schematic Circuit Layout.......................................................................................................... 288

8.11.3 Schematic Symbols ................................................................................................................... 289

Contents xv

8.11.3.1 Lines on a Schematic........................................................................................... 289

8.11.3.2 Lines Connect Symbols....................................................................................... 289

8.11.4 Schematic Diagram: An Example............................................................................................. 289

8.11.4.1 A Schematic by Any Other Name Is a Line Diagram......................................... 289

8.11.5 Schematics and Troubleshooting............................................................................................... 291

8.12 Electrical Schematics ............................................................................................................................... 291

8.12.1 Electrical Symbols .................................................................................................................... 292

8.12.1.1 Schematic Lines .................................................................................................. 292

8.12.1.2 Electrical System Power Supplies....................................................................... 292

8.12.1.3 Electronics Power Supplies................................................................................. 293

8.12.1.4 Electrical Loads................................................................................................... 294

8.12.1.5 Switches............................................................................................................... 294

8.12.1.6 Inductors (Coils).................................................................................................. 295

8.12.1.7 Transformers ....................................................................................................... 295

8.12.1.8 Fuses.................................................................................................................... 295

8.12.1.9 Circuit Breakers................................................................................................... 295

8.12.1.10 Electrical Contacts .............................................................................................. 296

8.12.1.11 Resistors .............................................................................................................. 296

8.12.2 Reading Plant Schematics......................................................................................................... 296

8.13 General Piping Systems and System Schematics..................................................................................... 298

8.13.1 Piping Systems.......................................................................................................................... 299

8.13.2 Joints.......................................................................................................................................... 299

8.13.2.1 Screwed Joints..................................................................................................... 299

8.13.2.2 Welded Joints....................................................................................................... 299

8.13.2.3 Flanged Joints...................................................................................................... 299

8.13.2.4 Bell-and-Spigot Joints......................................................................................... 299

8.13.2.5 Soldered Joints.....................................................................................................300

8.13.2.6 Joints and Fitting Symbols..................................................................................300

8.13.3 Valves........................................................................................................................................300

8.13.3.1 Valves: Definition and Function..........................................................................300

8.13.3.2 Valve Construction.............................................................................................. 301

8.13.4 Types of Valves ......................................................................................................................... 301

8.13.4.1 Ball Valve ............................................................................................................ 301

8.13.4.2 Cock Valves......................................................................................................... 302

8.13.4.3 Gate Valves.......................................................................................................... 302

8.13.4.4 Globe Valves........................................................................................................ 302

8.13.4.5 Check Valves....................................................................................................... 303

8.14 Hydraulic and Pneumatic System Schematic Symbols............................................................................ 303

8.14.1 Fluid Power Systems................................................................................................................. 303

8.14.2 Symbols Used for Hydraulic and Pneumatic Components....................................................... 304

8.14.3 AC&R System Schematic Symbols........................................................................................... 304

8.14.4 Schematic Symbols Used in Refrigeration Systems ................................................................. 305

8.14.4.1 Refrigeration Piping Symbols............................................................................. 305

8.14.4.2 Refrigeration Fittings Symbols ........................................................................... 305

8.14.4.3 Refrigeration Valve Symbols............................................................................... 305

8.14.4.4 Refrigeration Accessory Symbols....................................................................... 306

8.14.4.5 Refrigeration Component Symbols..................................................................... 306

8.14.4.5 Schematic Symbols Used in AC&R Air Distribution System ............................ 306

Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 307

References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 308

Chapter 9 Water Hydraulics................................................................................................................................................. 309

9.1 What Is Water Hydraulics?....................................................................................................................... 309

9.2 Basic Concepts ......................................................................................................................................... 309

9.2.1 Stevin’s Law ...............................................................................................................................310

9.3 Density and Specific Gravity.....................................................................................................................311