Engineering materials : Research, applications and advances

Research, Applications

and Advances

Engineering

Materials

Engineering

Materials

Research, Applications

and Advances

K.M. Gupta

Boca Raton London New York

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Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

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Version Date: 20140620

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Dedicated to the loving memory of my nephew

Jayant (Babul)

vii

Contents

Preface................................................................................................................xxvii

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................ xxix

Author................................................................................................................. xxxi

Basic Preliminary Information the Readers Need to Know.....................xxxiii

List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................... xxxix

1. Introduction to Some Recent and Emerging Materials ..........................1

1.1 Historical Perspective of Materials.....................................................1

1.1.1 Modern Perspective.................................................................1

1.2 Different Types of Engineering Materials.........................................1

1.2.1 Metals ........................................................................................2

1.2.2 Nonferrous Metals...................................................................3

1.2.3 Ceramics....................................................................................3

1.2.4 Organic Polymers ....................................................................3

1.2.5 Alloys.........................................................................................3

1.2.6 Composites................................................................................3

1.2.7 Classified Groups of Materials and Their Examples

and Uses ....................................................................................4

1.3 Scale of Materials and Size of Devices...............................................4

1.4 Requirements of Materials...................................................................5

1.4.1 Important Properties of Materials.........................................5

1.5 Present Scenario of Advanced Materials...........................................6

1.5.1 Futuristic Materials .................................................................7

1.6 Recent Advances in Materials Technology .......................................8

1.7 Smart Materials (or Intelligent Materials) ....................................... 10

1.7.1 Classification of Smart Materials......................................... 11

1.7.2 Piezoelectric Materials .......................................................... 11

1.7.3 Electro-Rheostatic and Magneto-Rheostatic......................12

1.8 Shape Memory Alloys ........................................................................ 13

1.8.1 Shape Memory Effect (SME) ................................................ 14

1.8.2 Material Systems of Different Shape Memory Alloys ...... 14

1.8.3 Preparation of SMA............................................................... 15

1.8.4 Applications of SMA in Different Fields ............................ 15

1.8.5 Current Examples of Applications of Shape Memory

Alloys....................................................................................... 18

1.8.6 Future Applications of SMA ................................................ 19

1.9 Advances in Smart Materials ............................................................ 19

1.9.1 Biomedical Applications as Smart Material

Application ............................................................................ 21

1.9.2 Textile Applications as Smart Material Application.........22

viii Contents

1.9.3 Biotechnological Applications as Smart

Material Application..............................................................22

1.9.4 Other Smart Material Applications.....................................23

1.10 Nanotechnology..................................................................................23

1.10.1 Processes to Prepare Nanomaterials................................... 24

1.10.2 Uses of Nanotechnology....................................................... 24

1.10.3 Future Prospects ....................................................................26

1.10.4 Nano-Electromechanical Systems ......................................27

1.11 Functionally Graded Materials .........................................................28

1.11.1 Types of FGMs........................................................................28

1.11.2 Functional Properties............................................................29

1.11.3 Processing of FGMs ...............................................................30

1.11.4 Applications of FGMs............................................................30

1.12 Introduction to Biomedical Materials .............................................. 32

1.12.1 Desired Functional Properties of Biomedical

Materials ................................................................................. 32

1.12.2 Some Key Applications of Biomaterials in Various

Biodevices and Allied Components ....................................33

References .......................................................................................................34

2. Peculiar Materials with Fascinating Properties.....................................35

2.1 Introduction to Auxetic Materials ....................................................35

2.1.1 Types of Auxetic Materials ...................................................36

2.1.2 Positive, Zero and Negative Poisson’s Ratio

(Auxetic) Materials................................................................. 37

2.1.3 Effect of Anisotropy on Poisson’s Ratio..............................38

2.1.4 Causes of Negative Poisson’s Ratio .....................................39

2.1.5 Applications of Auxetic Materials.......................................39

2.1.6 Auxetic Polymers ...................................................................40

2.1.7 Characteristics of Foamed Materials ..................................40

2.1.8 Auxetic Fibres’ Future Opportunities and Challenges ..... 41

2.2 Metallic Glasses................................................................................... 41

2.2.1 Interesting Amorphous Metal ............................................. 41

2.2.2 Unusual Properties of Metallic Glasses..............................42

2.2.3 Materials Systems of Metallic Glasses ................................42

2.3 Whiskers...............................................................................................43

2.3.1 Difference between Bulk, Fibre and Whisker Forms

of Materials .............................................................................43

2.3.2 Effects of Size of Whiskers on Mechanical Properties

of Materials .............................................................................44

2.3.3 Effects of Temperature on Properties of Whiskers ...........45

2.4 Intermetallic Compounds and Intermediate Compounds ...........45

2.4.1 Valency Intermetallic Compounds......................................46

2.4.2 Electron Intermetallic Compounds.....................................46

Contents ix

2.4.3 Definite Radii Ratio Intermetallic Compound ..................46

2.4.4 Intermediate Compounds (or Phases) ................................46

2.5 Emerging High-Pressure Materials and

Technologies for the Future ...............................................................47

2.5.1 High-Pressure Synthesis and Development of

Fascinating Materials ............................................................48

2.5.2 Meaning of High Pressure ...................................................49

2.5.3 Advances in High-Pressure Methodology.........................49

2.5.4 Magical Effects of High-Pressure Techniques on

Properties of Materials ..........................................................50

2.5.5 High-Pressure Mechanical (Superhard) Materials ...........50

2.5.6 Low-Compressibility and High Bulk Modulus Solid....... 51

2.5.7 High-Pressure Electronic and Optoelectronic

Materials ................................................................................. 52

2.5.8 Development of High-Pressure Superconductors............. 52

References .......................................................................................................53

3. Amorphous Materials and Futuristic Scope of Plastics .......................55

3.1 Introduction to Organic Materials....................................................55

3.2 Difference between Monomers and Polymers................................55

3.3 Degree of Polymerization ..................................................................57

3.3.1 Geometry of Polymeric Chain .............................................57

3.4 Additives in Polymers ........................................................................57

3.5 Various Types of Plastics and Their Applications..........................60

3.5.1 Thermosetting Plastics..........................................................60

3.5.2 Thermoplastics .......................................................................60

3.5.3 Comparison between Thermosets and Thermoplasts ..... 62

3.6 Polymeric Fibres ..................................................................................63

3.6.1 Properties of Various Synthetic and Natural Fibres .........63

3.7 Mechanical Behaviour of Plastics.....................................................63

3.8 Rubber...................................................................................................65

3.8.1 Different Types of Processed Natural Rubber...................65

3.8.2 Synthetic Rubber....................................................................66

3.9 Elastomer..............................................................................................66

3.9.1 Method of Producing Elastomer from Raw Rubber......... 67

3.9.2 Vulcanizing Agents ............................................................... 67

3.10 Behaviour of Polymers under Different Situations........................69

3.11 Recent Advances and Futuristic Scope of Plastics .........................69

3.11.1 Expanding Plastics ................................................................69

3.11.2 Conducting Polymers............................................................ 70

3.11.3 Polymers in Electronics......................................................... 70

3.11.4 Thermoplast-Thermoset Plastics.......................................... 70

3.11.5 Liquid Crystal Polymers .......................................................71

3.11.6 Photocurable Polymers .........................................................71

x Contents

3.11.7 Biomedical Polymers .............................................................71

3.11.8 Polymer Foams.......................................................................72

3.12 Photorefractive Polymers...................................................................73

3.13 Wood.....................................................................................................73

4. Structures and Applications of Ceramics, Refractories

and Glasses, etc. ............................................................................................77

4.1 Ceramic Materials ...............................................................................77

4.1.1 Basic Ceramic Structure........................................................77

4.2 Types of Ceramics ...............................................................................78

4.3 Refractories ..........................................................................................78

4.3.1 Refractoriness .........................................................................80

4.3.2 Types of Refractories .............................................................80

4.3.3 Properties of Refractories .....................................................80

4.4 Silica and Silicates ............................................................................... 81

4.4.1 Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Forms of Silica.............. 81

4.4.2 Configuration of Minerals .................................................... 81

4.5 Applications of Ceramics...................................................................82

4.6 Mechanical Behaviour of Ceramics..................................................83

4.6.1 Other Behaviour of Ceramics...............................................84

4.7 Electrical Behaviour of Ceramics......................................................85

4.8 Processing of Ceramics ......................................................................85

4.8.1 Glass-Forming Processes ......................................................85

4.9 Particulate Forming Processes ..........................................................87

4.10 Glasses ..................................................................................................88

4.10.1 Glass-Forming Constituents ................................................88

4.10.2 Devitrified Glass ....................................................................88

4.11 Types of Glasses ..................................................................................89

4.11.1 Soda-Lime Glasses.................................................................89

4.11.2 Lead Glasses ...........................................................................90

4.11.3 Borosilicate Glasses ...............................................................90

4.11.4 High-Silica Glasses ................................................................90

4.11.5 Photochromic and Zena Glasses .........................................90

4.12 Perovskite Structures (or Mixed Oxides).........................................90

4.13 RCC ....................................................................................................... 91

4.13.1 Ingredients of RCC ................................................................ 91

4.13.2 Reinforcing Materials............................................................92

4.13.3 Advantages of RCC................................................................93

4.14 Clays and Clay-Based Ceramics .......................................................93

4.15 Chemically Bonded Ceramics ...........................................................93

4.16 Applications of Ferroelectrics............................................................95

5. Polymeric Composite Materials: Types and Mechanics.......................97

5.1 Introduction .........................................................................................97

5.2 Laminated Composites ......................................................................97

Contents xi

5.2.1 Laminate .................................................................................98

5.2.2 Bulk Moulding Compounds ................................................98

5.2.3 Sheet Moulding Compounds ...............................................98

5.2.4 Prepreg Sheet Moulding Compound..................................98

5.3 Reinforced Composite Materials ......................................................99

5.3.1 Classification of Reinforced Composite Materials ............99

5.4 Particulate Composites..................................................................... 100

5.4.1 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites .............................. 101

5.4.2 Cermets ................................................................................. 101

5.4.3 Rubber-Toughened Polymers ............................................. 102

5.5 Flake Composites .............................................................................. 102

5.6 Whisker-Reinforced Composites .................................................... 102

5.7 Hybrid Composites ........................................................................... 102

5.7.1 Types of Hybrid Composites.............................................. 103

5.8 Sandwich Composites ...................................................................... 104

5.8.1 Honeycomb Materials ......................................................... 104

5.8.2 Flexural Rigidity of Sandwich Beam ................................ 105

5.8.3 Historical Application......................................................... 106

5.9 Advantages and Limitations of Composites ................................. 107

5.9.1 Comparison between Conventional and

Composite Materials............................................................ 108

5.10 Various Types of Fibres and Their Aspect Ratio .......................... 108

5.10.1 Aspect Ratio of Fibres ......................................................... 111

5.10.2 Glass Fibres........................................................................... 111

5.10.3 Boron Fibre............................................................................ 112

5.10.4 Carbon and Graphite Fibres ............................................... 112

5.10.5 Kevlar Fibre........................................................................... 112

5.10.6 Ceramic Fibres...................................................................... 113

5.10.7 High-Performance Fibres.................................................... 113

5.10.8 Natural Fibres....................................................................... 113

5.11 Configurations of Reinforcing Fibres............................................. 115

5.11.1 Forms of Fibres..................................................................... 115

5.11.2 Forms of End Products........................................................ 116

5.12 Various Matrix Materials ................................................................. 117

5.12.1 Mylar: A Form of Flake ....................................................... 117

5.12.2 MMC Composites ................................................................ 117

5.12.3 Wood–Plastic Composite .................................................... 117

5.13 Mechanics of Composite Laminates .............................................. 118

5.14 Rule of Mixture for Unidirectional Lamina.................................. 118

5.14.1 Volume Fraction and Weight Fraction .............................. 118

5.14.2 Density of Composite.......................................................... 119

5.14.3 Load on Composite.............................................................. 119

5.14.4 Longitudinal Strength and Modulus................................ 120

5.14.5 Transverse Strength and Modulus.................................... 120

5.14.6 Poisson’s Ratio ...................................................................... 121

xii Contents

5.14.7 Shear Moduli ........................................................................122

5.14.8 Range of Poisson’s Ratio in Composite Materials ...........122

5.14.9 Modified Rule of Mixture for Non-Unidirectional

Composites............................................................................125

5.14.10 Number of Dependent and Independent Elastic

Constants............................................................................... 127

5.15 Generalized Hooke’s Law and Elastic Constants......................... 127

5.15.1 Different Moduli and Coupling Coefficients................... 128

5.15.2 Major and Minor Poisson’s Ratio....................................... 128

5.16 Applications of Composite Materials............................................. 128

5.17 Stress–Strain Behaviour of Fibres, Matrix and Composites ....... 129

5.18 Basic Composite Manufacturing Methods.................................... 131

5.18.1 Prepreg Lay-Up Process...................................................... 132

5.18.2 Wet Lay-Up (or Hand Lay-Up) Process............................. 132

5.18.3 Thermoplastic Pultrusion Process..................................... 133

5.18.4 Comparison of Various Manufacturing Processes ......... 133

Review Questions ........................................................................................ 135

Numerical Problems.................................................................................... 136

References ..................................................................................................... 139

6. Sandwich Composite Materials, and Stitched and

Unstitched Laminates................................................................................ 141

6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 141

6.2 Types of Sandwich Core Materials................................................. 141

6.2.1 Honeycombs ......................................................................... 143

6.2.2 Foams..................................................................................... 143

6.3 Types of Face (Skin) Materials for Sandwich Constructions

and Their Characteristics ................................................................. 145

6.4 Sandwich Composite in Special Applications .............................. 145

6.4.1 Spacecraft Grade Sandwich Composites .......................... 145

6.4.2 Marine Grade Sandwich Composites ............................... 146

6.4.3 Aircraft Grade Sandwich Composites .............................. 147

6.4.4 Automobile Grade Sandwich Composites ....................... 147

6.5 Current Fields of Research in Sandwich

Composites/Constructions .............................................................. 147

6.5.1 Sandwich Composites in Wind Turbine Blades .............. 150

6.5.2 Custom Sandwich Composite for Paddle Surfboard...... 150

6.6 Recent Advances ............................................................................... 151

6.7 Experimental Studies on Mechanical Behaviour of Stitched

and Unstitched Glass/Epoxy Fibre–Reinforced Laminates ....... 151

6.8 Literature Review.............................................................................. 152

6.8.1 Tensile and Flexural Testing Review ................................ 152

6.8.2 Mode I Fracture for Double Cantilever Beam and

Width-Tapered Double Cantilever Beam .......................... 152

Contents xiii

6.8.3 Review for Buckling ............................................................ 154

6.8.4 Review for Impact................................................................ 154

6.8.5 Research Gap in Existing Available Literature ............... 154

6.9 Methodology...................................................................................... 155

6.10 Results and Discussion .................................................................... 157

6.10.1 Effect of Stitching on Tensile and Flexural

Properties ............................................................................. 157

6.10.2 Effect of Stitching and Midplane Fibre Orientation

on Mode I Fracture Toughness .......................................... 158

6.10.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy.......................................... 159

6.10.4 Effect of Stitching and Delamination on

Buckling Strength................................................................ 159

6.10.5 Effect of Stitching and Fibre Orientation on

Impact Properties................................................................. 160

6.11 Conclusions........................................................................................ 161

References ..................................................................................................... 162

7. Biocomposite Materials............................................................................. 165

7.1 Biodegradable Plant Fibre-Reinforced Composite ....................... 165

7.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plant Fibre Composite......... 166

7.3 Different Types of Plant Fibres for Green Composite.................. 166

7.4 Contribution of Plant Fibre–Based Green Composite

for Various Applications .................................................................. 167

7.5 Starch-Based Composites................................................................. 169

7.6 Starch as a Green Material............................................................... 170

7.7 Starch: History, Characteristics and Structure ............................. 171

7.7.1 Different Sources of Starch and Modified Starches........ 172

7.7.2 Processing of Starch before Using as Matrix

in Composite......................................................................... 174

7.7.3 Improving the Properties of Starch................................... 175

7.7.3.1 Blending with Synthetic Degradable

Polymers................................................................ 175

7.7.3.2 Blending with Biopolymers ................................ 176

7.7.3.3 Chemical Derivatives........................................... 176

7.8 Biopolymers/Biodegradable Polymers for Use as Matrix of

the Composite .................................................................................... 176

7.8.1 Biodegradable Thermoplastic Polymer: Polylactic

Acid........................................................................................ 178

7.9 Starch as a Source of Biopolymer (Agropolymer) ....................... 178

7.10 Fibres................................................................................................... 183

7.10.1 Natural Fibres....................................................................... 183

7.11 Classification of Starch-Based Biocomposites............................... 189

References ..................................................................................................... 191

xiv Contents

8. Special Kinds of Composites ................................................................... 193

8.1 Composites for Marine Applications ............................................. 193

8.1.1 Introduction of Composites to Marine Industry............. 193

8.1.2 Current Uses of Composites in Marine Applications..... 194

8.1.3 Desired Requirements of Composites in Ships and

Marine Structures ................................................................ 195

8.1.4 Resins in Marine Applications........................................... 196

8.1.5 Core Materials in Marine Applications ............................ 197

8.2 Fire-Resistant Composites ............................................................... 198

8.2.1 Flammability Parameters ................................................... 198

8.2.2 Aluminosilicate–Carbon Composites: A Geopolymer

Fire-Resistant Composite .................................................... 199

8.2.3 Fire Resistance of Inorganic Sawdust Biocomposite....... 199

8.2.4 Potassium Aluminosilicate Matrix....................................200

8.2.5 Fire-Resistant Ecocomposites Using

Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane Fire

Retardants .........................................................................201

8.2.6 Fire-Resistant Behaviour of Bottom Ash–Based

Cementitious Coating–Applied Concrete

Tunnel Lining ....................................................................... 202

8.2.7 Fire-Resistant Polypropylene Fibre–Reinforced

Cement Composites .............................................................203

8.3 Eco-Friendly Fireproof High-Strength Polymer

Cementitious Composites ................................................................205

8.3.1 Materials and Formulation.................................................206

8.3.2 Mix Proportion..................................................................... 207

8.3.3 Results and Discussion ....................................................... 207

8.3.4 Compressive Strength after Fire Test................................208

8.4 Composite Materials in Alternative Energy Sources...................208

8.4.1 Introduction..........................................................................208

8.4.2 Requirements for Wind Turbine Blade Materials ...........209

References .....................................................................................................209

9. Biomimetics and Biomimetic Materials................................................. 211

9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 211

9.2 Biomaterials ....................................................................................... 212

9.3 Spider Silk .......................................................................................... 214

9.3.1 Likely Applications of Spider Silk..................................... 215

9.4 Biomimetic Robot: Chemistry, Life and Applications ................. 215

9.5 Shark Skin Effect............................................................................... 216

9.6 Snake Scales ....................................................................................... 217

9.7 Gecko Effect....................................................................................... 218

9.8 Tread Effect........................................................................................ 219

9.9 Wear-Resistant Surfaces ...................................................................220

Contents xv

9.9.1 Wear Resistance of Sandfish in Desert .............................220

9.9.2 Erosion Resistance of Mollusc (Conch) Shells on

Sandy Beach..........................................................................220

9.9.3 Pangolin Scales..................................................................... 221

9.10 Lotus (or Self-Cleaning) Effect........................................................ 221

9.10.1 Reducing Adhesion and Friction.......................................223

9.11 Biomimetic Human Joints................................................................223

9.12 Development of Hydrobiomimetic-Inspired Biomimetic

Materials and Their Novel Applications ....................................... 224

9.12.1 Analogy between Biological Examples and

Biomimetic Materials .......................................................... 224

9.13 Design of Micro–Robot Fish Using Biomimetic Fin ....................225

9.14 Shark Skin–Inspired Biomimetic Drag-Reducing Surfaces ........226

9.15 Seashell-Inspired Design of Grid Shell Roof Covering ...............227

9.16 Dolphin Sound Wave–Inspired Sonar Technology .....................229

9.17 Reptile-Inspired Biomimetic Materials and Their Novel

Applications .......................................................................................230

9.17.1 Analogy of Biology and Materials .................................... 231

9.18 Gecko Feet–Inspired Biomimetic Products and Materials ......... 232

9.18.1 Hydrophobic Spin with Hidden Capillaries....................233

9.19 Viper as a Model in Its Defence ......................................................233

9.20 Chameleon-Inspired Colour-Changing Clothes ..........................234

9.21 Snake-Imitating Robot to Overcome the Problem of Balance ......236

9.22 Robot Scorpion Can Work in Harsh Desert Conditions.............. 237

9.23 Development of Insect-Inspired Biomimetic Materials and

Their Novel Applications .................................................................238

9.24 Moth Eye–Inspired Biomimetic Materials ....................................238

9.25 Termite-Inspired Biomimetic Materials......................................... 239

9.26 Stenocara: A Water Capturing Insect.............................................. 241

9.27 Mosquito Bite–Inspired Biomimetic Materials............................. 242

9.28 Honeycomb ........................................................................................ 243

9.29 Conclusions........................................................................................ 245

References ..................................................................................................... 247

10. Superhard Materials .................................................................................. 249

10.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 249

10.1.1 Need of Hardness Test........................................................ 249

10.1.2 Different Types of Hardness Tests .................................... 249

10.2 Brinell Hardness Test .......................................................................250

10.2.1 Test Setup, Specifications of Hardness Testing

Machines and Indentors .....................................................250

10.2.2 Test Procedure ......................................................................250

10.2.3 Observations and Calculations.......................................... 251

10.2.4 Test Requirements and Limitations .................................. 252