Encyclopedia of amErican indian literature

EncyclopEdia of

amErican indian

litEraturE

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EncyclopEdia of

amErican indian

litEraturE

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Jennifer McClinton-Temple

Alan Velie

Encyclopedia of American Indian Literature

Copyright © 2007 by Jennifer McClinton-Temple and Alan Velie

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any

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Facts On File, Inc.

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ISBN-10: 0-8160-5656-0

ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-5656-9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

McClinton-Temple, Jennifer

Encyclopedia of American Indian literature / Jennifer McClinton-Temple, Alan Velie.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.

ISBN 0-8160-5656-0 (acid-free paper)

1. American literature—Indian authors—Encyclopedias. 2. Indians in literature—Encyclo￾pedias. 3. Indians of North America—Intellectual life—Encyclopedias. I. McClinton-Temple,

Jennifer. II. Title.

PS153.152E53 2007

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This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Table of

ConTenTs

Introduction vi

A to Z Entries 1

Appendixes 415

Selected Bibliography of Works

by American Indian Authors 417

Bibliography of Secondary

Sources 435

Contributors 437

Index 447

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vi

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InTroduCTIon

North American Indians had a rich literature at

the time of first contact with Europeans. The prin￾cipal genres of traditional literature were songs,

the equivalent of European lyric poems, which

were often put to music before 1700, and tales,

which were very similar to European short nar￾ratives. Indians continue to employ these forms

today, especially in tribal settings, but Indians who

are professional authors in North America utilize

the same genres as writers of other ethnic groups,

that is, fiction (the novel and short story), poetry,

drama, and various forms of nonfiction.

The first American Indian to publish a liter￾ary work in English was Samson Occom (Mohe￾gan, 1723–92), who wrote A Sermon Preached at

the Execution of Moses Paul, an Indian in 1772.

Occom later published a collection of hymns that

included several of his own works. Other early

Indian writers of note were Yellow Bird (Cherokee,

1827–67), Sarah Winnemucca (Paiute, 1844–91),

and Alexander Posey (Creek, 1873–1908).

Yellow Bird, also known as John Rollin Ridge,

published the first novel by an Indian, The Life and

Adventures of Joaquin Murieta, the Celebrated Cali￾fornia Bandit, in 1854. Yellow Bird later published

a volume of poems, establishing a precedent of

Indian writers proficient in more than one genre.

Few American writers of other ethnic groups have

achieved excellence in both prose and verse, but

quite a few Indian writers (e.g., Scott Momaday,

James Welch, Louise Erdrich, and Sherman Alex￾ie) have done so.

Sarah Winnemucca was a memoirist and his￾torian whose Life among the Piutes is a clas￾sic. Winnemucca was the first Indian woman

to achieve literary recognition. Alexander Posey

was a poet and humorist. His verse was generally

considered mediocre, but his “Fus Fixico Letters”

are appreciated as excellent examples of political

satire. They inspired the work of a later Indian

satirist, Will Rogers (Cherokee, 1879–1935). Many

Americans familiar with Will Rogers think of him

as a cowboy rather than an Indian. He was, in fact,

both, starting his career as an entertainer under

the stage name “The Cherokee Kid.”

In the first half of the 20th century, the major

Indian writers were Charles Eastman (Sioux,

1858–1939), John Joseph Mathews (Osage, 1894–

1979), and D’Arcy McNickle (Cree, Flathead,

1904–77). Eastman lived the life of a Plains Indian

until age 15, when his father put him in school.

Eastman eventually graduated from Dartmouth

and ultimately became a physician. He was active

in early pan-Indian movements in the United

Introduction  vii 

States and had a good deal of influence as a public

intellectual, rubbing elbows with the likes of Mat￾thew Arnold, Longfellow, Emerson, and Teddy

Roosevelt. Eastman reworked traditional Sioux

tales for white audiences, cleaning up the racier

ones to make them appropriate for children.

John Joseph Mathews’s writings were often

a surprise to readers of his time, who generally

viewed Indians as hapless, impoverished victims.

At the turn of the 20th century the Osage had

large land holdings in eastern Oklahoma, and

when they struck oil there, they became some of

the wealthiest people in the state. Mathews attend￾ed the University of Oklahoma, where he played

football and belonged to a fraternity. After a stint

as a pilot in World War I, Mathews turned down a

Rhodes Scholarship as too restrictive and paid his

own way at Oxford to get a second B.A. Mathews’s

novel Sundown (1934) tells of an Osage, Challenge

Windzer, who also attends Oklahoma University

and faces many of the same situations Mathews

had, though Chal copes far less successfully.

D’Arcy McNickle’s work represents the high￾water mark of Indian literary achievement before

the American Indian Literary Renaissance that

began in the late 1960s. His most highly regarded

novel is The Surrounded (1936), a story of the

encroachment of Euro-American culture on the

Indians living on the Flathead Reservation in

northern Montana. The novel has the mood and

power of a Greek tragedy.

The 1960s, a decade of dramatic cultural and

political upheaval in the United States, ushered

in a renaissance in American Indian culture that

embraced literature, painting, philosophy, and, to

an extent, music. This renewal was accompanied

by the establishment of Native American studies

programs in universities around the country and,

somewhat later, an economic renaissance for some

tribes, based partly on gaming and partly on eco￾nomic development.

Indian literature was affected most of all.

Before 1968, Indians had published nine novels in

the United States. Today the number is approach￾ing 300. This difference is reflected not only in

quantity of works but in their quality. As good

as McNickle and Mathews were, they were not

among the top American novelists of their time.

N. Scott Momaday and Louise Erdrich are in that

select circle: House Made of Dawn and Love Medi￾cine are undoubtedly among the best half-dozen

novels of the second half of the 20th century.

The renaissance in Native American culture

began almost concurrently with the publication

of Momaday’s House Made of Dawn and The Way

to Rainy Mountain. Rainy Mountain is a highly

poetic memoir and brief history of the Kiowa.

House, a novel of an Indian veteran’s inability to

adjust to life on the reservation after World War II,

won the Pulitzer Prize in fiction in 1969. Moma￾day, who gained recognition as a poet before he

turned to fiction, originally planned House as a

series of poems. Momaday’s celebrity served as a

spur and inspiration to other Indian writers, espe￾cially James Welch (Blackfeet, 1940–2003), Leslie

Marmon Silko (Laguna, 1948– ), and Gerald

Vizenor (Chippewa, 1934– ).

Indian writers have a particularly strong influ￾ence on one another. Momaday’s House Made of

Dawn features an Indian veteran of World War II

who has trouble readjusting to civilian life when

he returns to his New Mexico pueblo. Silko’s

Ceremony also focuses on a World War II vet￾eran returning to a New Mexico pueblo, but Silko

develops a new literary genre—Momaday calls it a

“telling”—to treat the subject. Silko’s telling com￾bines the techniques of the modern novel with the

subject matter of traditional Laguna legends. Her

characters are contemporary avatars of Laguna

mythic figures. Momaday borrowed the form of

the telling for his next novel, The Ancient Child

(1989), the story of an Indian artist who turns

into a bear. Momaday uses a Kiowa legend as the

basis of his novel, but he was also alludes to Gerald

Vizenor’s hero, Proude Cedarfair, who turns into

a bear in Darkness in Saint Louis Bearheart (1978),

later revised and retitled as Bearheart: The Heirship

Chronicles. Louise Erdrich pays homage to both

Vizenor and Momaday when her heroine Fleur

turns into a bear in The Bingo Palace (1994).

James Welch wrote principally about the Black￾feet of his native Montana. As did Momaday, Welch

published poetry before he turned to fiction,

although his first collection of poems, Riding the

Earth Boy 40 (1975), came out a year after his first

novel, Winter in the Blood. The story of a nameless

Blackfeet layabout, Winter in the Blood is a comic

masterpiece. Students often criticize Indian novels

for centering on characters who are footloose,

feckless, oversexed, and underemployed—char￾acters like the hero of Winter or, for that matter,

House Made of Dawn, Ceremony, or other novels

of the early years of the American Indian Literary

Renaissance. One reason for exploring this sort

of stereotypical character is that in their first few

novels, Indian writers were concerned to show

Indians who are authentic—that is, distinctive in

their tribal identity, and lack of assimilation into

the greater society. And, as ethnicity tends to be

viewed stereotypically, it is those characters who

leave the strongest impression.

A second influence on characters portrayed in

novels by American Indian writers is the archetype

of the trickster. The trickster is ubiquitous as an

archetype among Indian tribes. Taking the form of

man, such as Sendeh among the Kiowa or Napi of

the Blackfeet, or an animal, such as Coyote in the

Southwest, the trickster plays tricks; is the victim

of tricks; has insatiable appetites, especially for sex;

and is a law unto himself. Trickster is so central a

figure in tribal mythology that it is inevitable that

Indian writers would incorporate aspects of him

into their fiction. And, if a protagonist is a trickster

he is far more likely to be chatting up a woman in a

bar than working away at his desk.

Welch went on to write about middle-class

Indians, particularly in The Indian Lawyer, where

the hero, Sylvester Yellow Calf, rises from pov￾erty to become a successful corporate lawyer who

eventually runs for a House seat. Momaday’s

second novel also has a middle-class protagonist,

Locke Setman, a Kiowa painter who exhibits his

work in galleries in San Francisco, New York, and

Paris. Today middle-class Indians are common in

fiction, but this is partially a function of the fact

that the 1990s saw considerable wealth generated

in Indian country.

Leslie Silko was another of the early renais￾sance writers to win critical acclaim. Her book

Ceremony led her to receive the highly prestigious

MacArthur Award, the so-called genius grant.

Both Ceremony and The Almanac of the Dead, her

second novel, excoriate Euro-American society for

stealing and desecrating Indian homelands and

brutalizing their inhabitants.

The last of the major authors of the first gen￾eration of the Native American literary renais￾sance, Gerald Vizenor, is the most prolific. At last

count he had published eight volumes of poetry

(most of them haiku), 10 novels, and nine works

of nonfiction, and he had written and produced

a film. Vizenor is Trickster as contemporary lit￾erary figure—“Coyote with a word processor”is

the way the Cherokee novelist Tom King puts

it. Vizenor’s first work, Darkness in Saint Louis

Bearheart, is a surrealistic look at America after

it literally runs out of gas, and the government

begins confiscating wooded land on reservations.

To escape a group of Indian tricksters and clowns

the hero, Proude Cedarfair, sets off on a trip across

America, fighting off enemies like Cecil Staples,

an avatar of the Evil Gambler of tribal myth, and

the fast food fascists of the Ponca City, Oklahoma,

Witch Hunt Restaurant. Cedarfair finally escapes

the perils of this (the third) world by magically

ascending into the fourth world through a vision

window in a New Mexican pueblo.

Louise Erdrich begins the second generation

of the American Indian literary renaissance. Like

Momaday and many others, she was a poet ini￾tially, later focusing on fiction. For the most part,

her novels are an extended saga of a Chippewa res￾ervation she calls Little No Horse. Loosely based

on the reservation where her maternal grandfa￾ther was chief, Turtle Mountain, in north-central

North Dakota, Little No Horse has become like

a character over the course of six Erdrich novels.

Love Medicine, the first and best regarded of the

series, was published in 1984. It covers a period

from the mid-1930s to the mid-1980s. Erdrich

later extends the saga backward into the 19th

century and forward into the mid-1990s, detailing

the fate of scores of characters. She begins with the

last days of the traditional way of life (including a

viii  Encyclopedia of American Indian Literature

surrealistic account of the death of the last herd of

buffalo on the reservation), continues through the

difficult days after the Dawes Act cost the Chip￾pewa much of their land and tuberculosis almost

wiped them out, through their misery during the

depression, the grinding poverty that lasted until

the 1990s, when gaming and a measure of busi￾ness development lifted most of the survivors

into the middle class. The Little No Horse series,

presumably still a work in progress, now numbers

seven volumes. In addition, Erdrich has published

two other novels, two volumes of verse, and sev￾eral children’s stories.

The latest of the Indian literary stars is Sher￾man Alexie (Spokane/Coeur d’Alene, 1966– ).

Alexie, like many writers, began as a poet but

turned to fiction. His earlier works, The Lone

Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven (1993)

and Reservation Blues (1995), take place on the

reservation in Welpinit, Washington, a bleak

settlement of Housing and Urban Development

(HUD) houses where the underemployed Spo￾kane try to scratch out a living. In his later collec￾tions of short stories, The Toughest Indian in the

World (2000) and Ten Little Indians (2003), the

protagonists are computer programmers, busi￾nesspeople, government officials—tribal yuppies

from Seattle who are more at home in Starbucks

than on the reservation they or their parents

left.

There has always been an Indian middle class

in America, but it was very small until the Indian

economic revival of the 1980s and 1990s finally

drew money into Indian country. Contemporary

Indian fiction has chronicled the fortunes of the

Indians as they trade the miseries of poverty on

the reservation for the anxieties of the urban

business world.

Indian fiction is the mainstay of the literary

aspect of the American Indian renaissance, but

poetry is important as well, and not only the

poetry of Indian novelists. There are many impor￾tant American Indian poets who are not primar￾ily novelists, enough so that any selection seems

arbitrary, but the leading Indian poets today are

probably Simon Ortiz (Acoma, 1941– ) and Joy

Harjo (Muscogee Creek, 1951– ).

Ortiz writes intensely political poetry, pre￾senting a running critique of American history,

primarily focusing on Indian-white relations. His

short poems are history lessons from the underside

of the American experience, filled with references

to Cotton Mather, Colonel John Chivington, Kit

Carson, and Black Kettle as well as faceless veter￾ans from 20th-century wars. Ortiz’s verse is sharp,

but not bitter; ultimately he strikes a hopeful tone.

Despite the grim events of the 19th century, Ortiz

does not think of whites as the other: He very

much considers himself an American. As he puts it

in an epigraph to from Sand Creek (1981):

This America

has been a burden

of steel and mad

death,

but look now,

there are flowers

and new grass

and a spring wind

rising

from Sand Creek.

Joy Harjo studied painting and theater before

she became a poet. Her collections of verse, espe￾cially The Woman Who Fell from the Sky and She

Had Some Horses, have established her as one of

the leading poets in the United States. In the early

1990s, she formed the band Poetic Justice and

began reciting her poems to a backdrop of tribal￾jazz-reggae rhythms. Harjo also plays saxophone

with the sextet.

Harjo’s most striking poems blend crystal-clear

conversational diction with surrealistic imagery,

for example, in “Nautilaus”:

This is how I cut myself open—

with half a pint of whiskey, then

There’s enough dream to fall through

To pure bone and shell

Where ocean has carved out

warm sea animals,

and has driven the night

dark and in me

like a labyrinth of knives.

Introduction  ix

In drama Hanay Geiogamah (Kiowa, 1945– )

was an early renaissance figure, producing his

best-known play, Body Indian, in 1972 in New

York City. The play incorporates the blackest of

black humor in treating the sad condition of a

disabled alcoholic named Bobby Lee. Bobby has

saved money for rehabilitation, but when he pass￾es out (repeatedly), his friends steal his money,

and when that is gone, they pawn his artificial leg.

White viewers generally react with horror; Indian

audiences find grim humor in the situation.

The troupe Geiogamah founded, Native

American Theatre Ensemble (NATE), took Body

Indian on a nationwide tour, playing at the

Smithsonian and a number of western states,

including Geiogamah’s native Oklahoma.

The other fine playwright of the American

Indian literary renaissance is the Canadian Tom￾son Highway (Cree, 1951– ). Born in a tent

in the middle of a snowbank in northeast Sas￾katchewan, an area so remote it makes Alexie’s

Welpinit look like Chicago, Highway made it to

the University of Manitoba, then moved to Lon￾don to study to be a concert pianist. Eventually

he received a degree in English, and after work￾ing for a number of years in Indian social and

cultural programs, he started writing plays. His

first work, The Rez Sisters, won an award as best

new play in the 1986–87 Toronto theater season.

Sisters is a frank and very funny look at the life

of seven women on a Canadian reserve who try

to better their lives socially and economically,

through bingo. The play became a great success

as it toured Canada and was selected as one of

two plays to represent Canada in the Edinburgh

International Festival. Thomson followed Sisters

with a play about seven men on a reserve, Dry

Lips Oughta Move to Kapuskasing, and a musical,

Rose.

Although it would be almost a century before

Indians were producing their own films, Indians

have been involved in filmmaking since Pathé

Frères hired James Young Deer (James Younger

Johnson, Winnebago, c. 1880–1946) and his wife,

Princess Red Wing (Lillian St. Cyr, Winnebago,

1883–1974), to give authenticity to their west￾erns. Young Deer produced and directed White

Fawn’s Devotion and Cheyenne Brave in 1911. As

time went on, white actors such as Sal Mineo and

Tony Curtis began playing Indians, and it was not

until the 1970s that Indian actors regained some

importance in Hollywood, primarily as actors,

when Sherman Alexie’s Smoke Signals (1997),

a film written, directed, and acted by Indians,

achieved commercial and critical success.

It is difficult to do justice to American Indi￾an literary renaissance nonfiction here, but it

is important to mention a few things. In the

area of autobiography, Charles Eastman, Scott

Momaday, and Gerald Vizenor have produced

important works, and both of the latter men have

written numerous essays. However, the major

nonfiction writer of the period is Vine Deloria

(Sioux, 1933–2005). Deloria’s work is impossible

to categorize but for political-theological-satiri￾cal polemic there are few like him. Deloria’s first

shot across America’s bow was Custer Died for

Your Sins (1969), a manifesto challenging whites

to abandon their stereotypical ideas of Indians.

Over the years, Deloria has taken on what he sees

as flawed white concepts of religion (God Is Red,

1973) and science (Red Earth, White Lies, 1995).

While some of his ideas are hard to accept—his

skepticism about evolution, for instance—Delo￾ria is a master of argumentation and an endlessly

fascinating writer.

In short, today Indian literature is flourishing

in many genres. Some see it as the most vibrant

of America’s many ethnic literatures; others view

it as a separate anglophone literature. Clearly the

Indians of North America are currently produc￾ing some of the most lyrical and powerful works

in the world.

About this book

Developing a strong, coherent list of entries for

this text was a difficult task. What makes literature

worthy of discussion? What qualifies a work or

list of works to be included in a reference volume

such as this? These questions are important for

any reference work, but when dealing with works

that address American Indian literature, answer￾ing them becomes quite complex.

x  Encyclopedia of American Indian Literature

First, there are few templates to follow. Until

recently, American Indian literature has been con￾sidered only as a footnote to the broader category

of American literature. There are few reference

works with the scope of this project to use as mod￾els for what might be included here. Next, contro￾versies lurk within the question of what does or

does not qualify as American Indian literature. For

instance, should authors whose status as Indians

has been generally viewed as suspect be included

here? And what of authors whose status as Indian

is unquestionable but whose works seldom, if ever,

address issues that we might think of as “Indian,”

or even contain characters who identify as Indian?

As the writer Thomas King has noted, there is no

single category that will encompass “full-bloods

raised in cities, half-bloods raised on farms, quar￾ter-bloods raised on reservations, Indians adopted

and raised by white families . . .” (x). In the end,

we decided that authors whose works have made a

mark on the tradition of Native literature, whether

that mark is positive or not, should be included.

Individual entries on such controversial figures

and texts address these issues.

Next, geography poses a problem. The con￾tiguous 48 states are obviously what most people

think of when imagining where “American Indian

literature” might he written. Beyond that, however,

questions arise. For instance, Alaska and Hawaii

both have a vivid and complex tradition of Native

literature. Native Alaskans, however, possess sever￾al cultural similarities to Americans Indians in the

Pacific Northwest and have always been included

in the legal definition of Native Americans. Thus,

including the tribes of Alaska in this volume was

never really a question. Native Hawaiians, on the

other hand, belong to a Polynesian culture and

have only recently, in July 2005, been declared

to have the same rights, such as sovereignty and

rights governing the use and ownership of sacred

artifacts and places, as others who have long been

considered American Indians. A sophisticated

discussion of Hawaiian literature, was, we felt,

beyond the scope of this encyclopedia.

Last, there is the question of our neighboring

countries, Canada and Mexico. Many works such

as this one do not stray outside the boundaries

of the United States in their coverage. For us,

this made sense in terms of our southern border.

Reporting on Mexican literature, and the indig￾enous cultures of Mexico, requires an expertise

that, while it might sometimes overlap with the

field of Native American literature, as it surely

does among the Navajo, Hopi, and Pueblo tribes

of the Southwest to name a few, is nowhere near a

perfect fit. That discussion, we feel, would be better

left to the editors of Facts On File’s encyclopedia

of Hispanic American literature. Canada, however,

is not so easily dealt with. The indigenous people

of Canada, known as First Nations peoples in

their home country, have much in common with

the indigenous people of the lower 48 states and

Alaska. In fact, many tribes, such as the Chippewa

(also known as the Ojibwe or the Anishinabe),

the Cree, and the Sioux (Nakota, Dakota, Lakota),

have ancestral homes on both sides of the border.

Remembering that that border is an artificial

marker, drawn by European governments without

regard to the people living there before it was

drawn, is an essential point in the conversation

regarding the relationship between Native Ameri￾cans and First Nations peoples. In addition, there

are too many similarities in the cultures, histories,

languages, and social problems of these groups

to draw that artificial line once more. We include

in this volume, therefore, a great number of First

Nations authors and their works as well as a long

entry on First Nations literature.

Issues of time and longevity exerted pressure

on us as well. In most literary reference books,

more weight is given to works that have stood

the test of time and to authors who have a large

and influential body of work. While that remains

true here, mitigating factors play a role too. For

instance, we include entries on several novels writ￾ten in the past 10 years, texts that in many cases

are the authors’ first or second novels. American

Indian literature is a field that is expanding,

changing, and creating itself as we speak. Being

as up to date as possible is more important in this

field than in other fields that might have accepted

and well-established foundations. Nonetheless,

we have also made every effort to include entries

on all important Native writers and all the Native

Introduction  xi

works that are commonly taught in high schools

and colleges.

Finally, this volume was not an easy one to

name. From several possibilities we ultimately

choose Encyclopedia of American Indian Literature.

This was not a simple decision. Indian authors

themselves are torn on the matter of what this lit￾erature, and these people, should be called. Gerald

Vizenor, for instance, says, “The name Indian is a

convenient word, to be sure, but it is an invented

name that does not come from any native language,

and does not describe or contain any aspects of

traditional tribal experience and literature” (1).

Jace Weaver, on the other hand, points out that

both Indian and Native American are instantly

contradictory, as the first seems to point to people

from India and the second to anyone born in the

United States; therefore, he uses the terms inter￾changeably. Russell Means, activist and founding

member of the American Indian Movement, says

flatly, “I abhor the term Native American.” Means

chooses American Indian because he “knows its

origins” (Means 2). Finally, a 1995 survey by the

U.S. Census Bureau showed that the majority

of American Indians prefer that term to Native

American, and the most recent addition to the

Mall in Washington, D.C., the National Museum

of the American Indian, reflects this preference.

However, within the entries themselves, which

were written by various scholars in the field, dif￾ferent terms are used to refer to the authors, the

tribes in which they originate, and the people

about whom they write. Given the responses,

quoted from Vizenor and Means, it would seem

arrogant to ignore what individual scholars might

prefer. Many of the contributors to this encyclope￾dia are American Indians themselves, so the terms

they use matter to them as well. Many of the

entries use tribally specific adjectives, referring

to an author as Cherokee or Navajo and avoiding

the more general choice altogether. Other terms,

such as indigenous, aboriginal, and Native are

used by contributors as well, generally to invoke

a sense of origin that might be applied in a more

universal way than either American Indian or

Native American. All of these words imply a kind

of unsurpassable connection to place: the first

inhabitants, brought from nowhere, always here.

In addition, in the entries that discuss Cana￾dian authors and their texts, contributors use the

preferred term, First Nations, as well as tribally

specific descriptors.

bibliogrAphy

King, Thomas. All My Relations: An Anthology of

Contemporary Canadian Native Fiction. Toronto:

McClelland, 1990.

Means, Russell. “I Am an American Indian, Not

a Native American.” Available online. URL:

http://www.peaknet.net/~aardvark/means.html.

Accessed on August 15, 2005.

Vizenor, Gerald. Introduction. Native American Lit￾erature: A Brief Introduction and Anthology. New

York: HarperCollins, 1995.

Weaver, Jace. That the People Might Live. Native

American Literature and Native American Com￾munity. New York: Oxford, 1997.

Alan R. Velie and Jennifer McClinton-Temple

xii  Encyclopedia of American Indian Literature

a To Z

enTrIes

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