CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics

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EDITION

CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics

Internet Version 2016

Editor-in-Chief

W. M. Haynes, Ph.D.

Scientist Emeritus

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Associate Editor

Thomas J. Bruno, Ph.D.

Group Leader

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Editor, Internet Edition

David R. Lide, Ph.D.

Former Director, Standard Reference Data

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Editorial Advisory Board

Grace Baysinger

Swain Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Library

Stanford University

Kozo Kuchitsu

Department of Chemistry

Josai University

Lev I. Berger

California Institute of Electronics and Materials Science

Dana L. Roth

Millikan Library

California Institute of Technology

Michael Frenkel

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Daniel Zwillinger

Mathematics Department

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Robert N. Goldberg

National Institute of Standards and Technology

FOREWORD

I bought my first copy of the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and

Physics in the fall of 1956 as a freshman engineering student at

University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). I remember trying to

shortcut the chem 1 lab experiments by doing flame tests to identify

the elements (rather than the tedious correct procedure) using the

tables from the Rubber Handbook. Somehow I made an egregious

mistake and the lab TA quizzed me, asking how I could have made

such gross errors in my analysis. I got a zero on that experiment.

Later in my freshman year, I ran out of money and had to drop

out for six months, working as a tool designer for Douglas Aircraft

Company. What I remember is using some tables from the

Handbook as I was trying to use the Young’s modulus and other

properties to estimate the sizes of aluminum alloy tubes for the

pressure tests on the Navy A3D fighter (my “tool” was designed to

contain the damage if the cockpit failed the pressure test).

I do not remember using the Handbook much as I finished my

B.S. in engineering at UCLA, nor do I remember the first few

years as an engineering science graduate student studying metal￾lurgy at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech).

However, after obtaining my Ph.D. in October 1964 and joining

the chemistry faculty at Caltech in November 1964, I began trying

to find the best data on bond energies, heats of formation, ion￾ization potentials, electron affinities, elastic moduli, and so forth,

so that I could compare the quantum mechanics calculations

based on the method (generalized valence bond) I had developed

as a graduate student. Here, I lost confidence in the Handbook

because some of the data were ancient and some more modern,

but generally, there were no references to the data, so I could not

check the reliability.

As a result, I built my own reference system with the best ther￾mochemical data from various references but supplemented by

using Sid Benson group additivities, whose tables I extended with

my QM studies. I kept track of tabulations in various critical analy￾sis journals (Landolt Börnstein, JANAF, J. Chem. Phys. Ref. Data),

and review articles (Hotep and Lineberger electron affinities),

and compared discrepancies in the data from different sources

by referring back to the original papers. In those days, I would

often spend Sunday in the Millikan Library at Caltech updating

my properties databases, sometimes receiving assistance from the

chemistry librarian at Caltech, Dana Roth (who started graduate

school in chemistry at Caltech the same year I started in engineer￾ing science). Dana was always able to find the missing data.

However, this all changed when David Lide became the editor

of the Handbook. Quickly the old unreferenced data was replaced

with critically reviewed data, citing the original references. Thus,

I could check to see if the latest references I knew about had been

included. As a result, I no longer maintained my own reference li￾brary, knowing that I could find it in the Handbook and that I could

trust the data. When in doubt, I could find the reference and check

the original source. I am pleased that this policy has continued

under Mickey Haynes, the present editor. Mickey draws heavily

on the thermodynamic and thermophysical property data experts

at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), and

he is committed to including uncertainty values and references to

original data sources, a very important addition.

As my research interests have broadened and changed over the

last five decades, the kind of theory that I do has changed as to

how I obtain data and the kind of data that I need. However, when￾ever I need to find a particular heat of formation, redox potential,

or melting point, I know exactly where to go.

I am pleased that CRC has evolved to make the database search￾able and on the web for easy access. This is so much better than

in the old days.

I am honored to participate this year in the progress of this great

institution and expect that it will continue to evolve to serve the

science and technology community as we begin to focus more on

energy and water sustainability to serve the continually expanding

population of the world.

I do have a suggestion for the future. Computational methods

have improved to the point that for many areas of science and

technology the quantities predicted from the theory can be trusted

as much as the experiments, particularly for properties involving

interfaces and surfaces. I strongly recommend that the Handbook

start to investigate how to include such information. This is very

complicated because there are a variety of methods and approxi￾mations so that informed judgments must be made about how

much to trust any particular predicted data. The experts know

(usually), but we need to provide for nonexperts curated computa￾tional data including estimates of its reliability.

William A. Goddard III

Charles and Mary Ferkel Professor of Chemistry, Materials

Science, and Applied Physics

Director, Materials and Process Simulation Center (MSC)

California Institute of Technology

Pasadena, California 91125 USA

E-mail: [email protected]

January 2015

PREFACE

The 96th Edition of the Handbook includes new tables and major updates and expansions. A series

highlighting the achievements of some of the major historical figures in chemistry and physics was

initiated with the 94th edition. This series is continued with this edition which is focused on Lord Kelvin,

Michael Faraday, John Dalton, and Robert Boyle. This series, which provides biographical information, a

list of major achievements, and notable quotations attributed to each of the renowned chemists and

physicists, will be continued in succeeding editions. Each edition will feature two chemists and two

physicists. The following new tables have been added to this edition:

Section 1: Basic Constants, Units, and Conversion Factors

• Descriptive Terms for Solubility

Section 8: Analytical Chemistry

• Stationary Phases for Porous Layer Open Tubular Columns

• Coolants for Cryotrapping

• Instability of HPLC Solvents

• Chlorine-Bromine Combination Isotope Intensities

Section 16: Health and Safety Information

• Materials Compatible with and Resistant to 72 Percent Perchloric Acid

• Relative Dose Ranges from Ionizing Radiation

Significant updates and expansions of tables for the 96th Edition include the following:

Section 6: Fluid Properties

• Update and expansion of Sublimation Pressure of Solids

• Major update of Vapor Pressure of Fluids at Temperatures Below 300 K

Section 7: Biochemistry

• Expansion of Structure and Functions of Some Common Drugs

Section 8: Analytical Chemistry

• Minor update of Nuclear Spins, Moments, and Other Data Related to NMR Spectroscopy

Section 9: Molecular Structure and Spectroscopy

• Update of Bond Dissociation Energies

Section 11: Nuclear and Particle Physics

• Update of Summary Tables of Particle Properties

• Major update of Table of the Isotopes

Section 14: Geophysics, Astronomy, and Acoustics

• Update of Major World Earthquakes

• Update of Atmospheric Concentration of Carbon Dioxide, 1958-2014

• Update of Global Temperature Trend, 1880-2014

Section 15: Practical Laboratory Data

• Update of Dependence of Boiling Point on Pressure

Section 16: Health and Safety Information

• Update of Threshold Limits for Airborne Contaminants

Appendix B:

• Update of Sources of Physical and Chemical Data

In addition to offering the full text of the print edition in searchable pdf format, this Internet Version

2016 presents the major tables of numerical data in the form of interactive tables that can be sorted,

filtered, and combined in various ways. Substances in these tables can be retrieved by searching on name,

formula, CAS Registry Number, or chemical structure, and such a search can be combined with a request

for a desired property. Thus, one can request a specific property of a specific substance (for example,

viscosity of benzene as a function of temperature) and receive a customized table with exactly that

information. In addition, the Internet version includes a section with pdf files of many older tables that

have been removed from the print edition to make space for new material.

The success of the Handbook is very dependent on feedback from its users. The Editor-in-Chief

appreciates any suggestions from readers on proposed new topics for the Handbook or comments on how

the usefulness of the Handbook may be improved in future editions. Please send your comments to the

Editor-in-Chief: [email protected]

Numerous international experts make key contributions to the Handbook. These contributors are

listed on pages immediately following the Preface. Their efforts play a key role in the quality and

diversity of the subject matter covered in the Handbook. I also acknowledge the sound advice and

guidance of the Editorial Advisory Board members of the Handbook, who are listed in the front matter.

Fiona Macdonald, Publisher – Chemical & Life Sciences, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group has been of

great assistance and support in providing oversight to ensure that the Handbook continues to satisfy the

needs of the user community. Thanks also to Linda Leggio, Pam Morrell, Theresa Gutierrez, and James

Yanchak for their detailed, cooperative work and extreme care in the production of the Handbook.

W. M. Haynes

March 2015

The 96th Edition of the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics is dedicated to my wife,

Toni F. Haynes,

and members of my family,

Michael and Am Haynes,

and to my granddaughter,

Amelia Suwan Haynes

How to Cite this Reference

The recommended form of citation is: W. M. Haynes, ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,

96th Edition (Internet Version 2016), CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL. If a specific table

is cited, use the format: "Physical Constants of Organic Compounds," in CRC Handbook of Chemistry

and Physics, 96th Edition (Internet Version 2016), W. M. Haynes, ed., CRC Press/Taylor and Francis,

Boca Raton, FL.

This work contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted

material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are

listed. Best efforts have been made to select and verify the data on the basis of sound scientific

judgment, but the author and the publisher cannot accept responsibility for the validity of all

materials or for the consequences of their use.

© Copyright Taylor and Francis Group LLC 2016

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Thomas J. Bruno

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Charles E. Carraher

Department of Chemistry and

Biochemistry

Florida Atlantic University

Boca Raton, Florida 33431

Jin-Pei Cheng

Ministry of Science & Technology

Beijing 100862, China

Robert D. Chirico

Thermodynamics Research Center

Applied Chemicals and Materials Division

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Boulder, Colorado 80305

Ivan Cibulka

Department of Physical Chemistry

Institute of Chemical Technology

CZ-166 28 Prague, Czech Republic

Arthur K. Covington

Department of Chemistry

University of Newcastle

Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU

England

Christopher J. Cramer

Department of Chemistry

University of Minnesota

Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

Vladimir Diky

Thermodynamics Research Center

Applied Chemicals and Materials Division

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Boulder, Colorado 80305

Michael Frenkel

Thermodynamics Research Center

Applied Chemicals and Materials Division

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

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Jeffrey R. Fuhr

Quantum Measurement Division

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899

Robert N. Goldberg

Biosystems and Biomaterials Division

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

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Thomas W. Grove

Boulder Safety, Health, and Environment

Division

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

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Allan H. Harvey

Applied Chemicals and Materials Division

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Steven R. Heller

Biomolecular Measurement Division

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Norman E. Holden

National Nuclear Data Center

Brookhaven National Laboratory

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Marcia L. Huber

Applied Chemicals and Materials Division

National Institute of Standards and

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Andrei Kazakov

Thermodynamics Research Center

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Quantum Measurement Division

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Center for Hydrate Research

Colorado School of Mines

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Eric W. Lemmon

Applied Chemicals and Materials Division

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Department of Chemistry

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Department of Energy and Mineral

Engineering

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Department of Chemistry

University of Minnesota

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Air Force Research Laboratory/VSBP

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University of Calgary

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Quantum Measurement Division

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University of British Columbia

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Larissa I. Podobedova

Quantum Measurement Division

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Joseph Reader

Quantum Measurement Division

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E. Dendy Sloan

Center for Hydrate Research

Colorado School of Mines

1600 Illinois Street

Golden, Colorado 80401

Lewis E. Snyder

Astronomy Department

University of Illinois

Urbana, Illinois 61801

Paris D. N. Svoronos

Queensborough Community College

City University of New York

Bayside, New York 11364

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Quantum Measurement Division

National Institute of Standards and

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Donald G. Truhlar

Department of Chemistry

University of Minnesota

Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

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Chemistry Department

University of Coimbra

Coimbra, Portugal

Wolfgang L. Wiese

Quantum Measurement Division

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

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Christian Wohlfarth

Martin Luther University

Institute of Physical Chemistry

Mühlpforte 1

06108 Halle (Saale), Germany

Daniel Zwillinger

Mathematics Department

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Troy, New York 12180

Historical Figures in Chemistry and Physics

Sir Isaac Newton English scientist (physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philoso￾pher, alchemist, and theologian)

Born: Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England, December 25, 1642

Died: London, England, March 20, 1727

Fellow of Trinity College of Cambridge University

• His monograph Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (commonly

known as Principia), published in 1687, laid the foundation for most of clas￾sical mechanics. In this work, Newton described the law of universal gravita￾tion and the three laws of motion. The Principia is generally considered to be

one of the most important scientific books ever written.

• Built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of

color based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into

the many colors that form the visible spectrum and that a lens and a sec￾ond prism could recompose the multicolored spectrum into white light;

published in Opticks in 1704.

• Shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of differen￾tial and integral calculus.

• Knighted in 1705 and was the first scientist given the honor of burial in

Westminster Abbey.

“Plato is my friend, Aristotle is my friend, but my greatest friend is truth.”

“Genius is patience.”

“If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.”

“I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to

have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in

now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary,

whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.”

Niels Bohr Danish physicist

Born: Copenhagen, Denmark, October 7, 1885

Died: Copenhagen, Denmark, November 18, 1962

Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen

• Received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922 “for his services in the investiga￾tion of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them.”

• Developed the model of the atom with the nucleus at the center and elec￾trons in orbit around it, which he compared to the planets orbiting the sun.

• Developed the idea that electrons move from one energy level to another in

discrete steps, which became a basis for quantum theory.

• Conceived the principle of complementarity: that things may have a dual

nature, but we experience only one aspect at a time, for example, light

can behave as either a wave or a stream of particles depending on the

experimental framework.

• Part of the British team of physicists working on the Manhattan Project;

became an advocate of the peaceful use of nuclear energy; received the

first ever Atoms for Peace Award in 1957; one of the founding fathers of

CERN in 1954.

• A chemical element (number 107) named in honor of Bohr; hafnium, ele￾ment number 72, whose properties were predicted by Bohr, was named

by him after Hafnia, Copenhagen’s Latin name.

• Centennial of the Bohr model commemorated in Denmark this year (2013).

“An expert is a man who has made all the mistakes which can be made, in a

very narrow field.”

“Anyone who is not shocked by quantum theory has not understood it.”

HistoricalFig.indd 1 3/4/13 10:49 AM

Antoine L. Lavoisier French chemist

Born: Paris, France, August 26, 1743

Died: Paris, France, May 8, 1794

Member of the French Academy of Sciences

• Known as the “Father of Modern Chemistry.”

• Established the law of conservation of mass from combustion experi￾ments in discovering that, although matter may change its form or shape,

its mass always remains the same.

• In Methods of Chemical Nomenclature (1787), he invented the system of

chemical nomenclature still largely in use today.

• Named both nitrogen (1778) and hydrogen (1783) and predicted silicon

(1778).

• Demonstrated that air is a mixture of gases (primarily oxygen and nitro￾gen), one of which combines with metals to form oxides; demonstrated

oxygen’s role in animal and plant respiration.

• Determined that the components of water are hydrogen and oxygen.

• Was the first to establish that sulfur was an element (1777) rather than a

compound.

• Helped to construct the metric system and compiled the first extensive

list of elements.

• Disproved the phlogiston theory, which postulated that materials re￾leased a substance called phlogiston when they burned.

• Introduced the possibility of allotropy in chemical elements when he discov￾ered that diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.

• Introduced a rigorous experimental approach to chemistry based on the de￾termination of the weights of reagents and products of chemical reactions.

• Was beheaded during the French revolution.

“A man cannot live more than 24 hours unless he has at least three cubic

meters of air that is being constantly replaced.”

“I consider nature a vast chemical laboratory in which all kinds of compo￾sition and decompositions are formed. Vegetation is the basic instrument

the creator uses to set all of nature in motion.”

Dmitri I. Mendeléev Russian chemist

Born: Tobol’sk, Siberia, Russia, February 7, 1834

Died: St. Petersburg, Russia, February 2, 1907

Professor of Chemistry at Saint Petersburg Technological Institute and Saint

Petersburg State University; Director of the Bureau of Weights and Measures.

• Author of the definitive chemistry textbook of his time called The

Principles of Chemistry written in Russian (1870).

• Generally given credit for discovery of the Periodic Table, published in

1871; identified gaps in the table that were later filled with the discovery

of the missing elements.

• Almost won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1906 (lost by one vote).

• In 1955, a newly discovered element (number 101) was named in his honor.

“Work, look for peace and calm in work: you will find it nowhere else.”

“The establishment of a law, moreover, does not take place when the first

thought of it takes form, or even when its significance is recognised, but

only when it has been confirmed by the results of the experiment.”

Historical Figures in Chemistry and Physics

HistoricalFig.indd 2 3/4/13 10:49 AM

Historical Figures in Chemistry and Physics

Galileo Galilei Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher

Born: Pisa, Italy, February 15, 1564

Died: Arcetri, Italy, January 8, 1642

Chair of Mathematics at University of Pisa and University of Padua

• Known as the “Father of Modern Observational Astronomy,” the

“Father of Modern Physics,” the “Father of Science,” and “the Father of

Modern Science.”

• Formulated the basic law of falling bodies in that the speed of falling bod￾ies is independent of mass, which he verified by careful measurements.

• Constructed and perfected the use of a telescope with which he stud￾ied lunar craters and mountains, and discovered four moons revolving

around Jupiter, sunspots, and the phases of Venus.

• Gave credence to Copernicus’s claims that the Sun was the center of the

universe (heliocentrism), and not the Earth.

• Charged with heresy by the Inquisition of Pope Urban VIII in 1633

and imprisoned because he taught the public that the Earth revolved

around the sun. He was put under house arrest for the rest of his life.

While under house arrest, he wrote Two New Sciences which summa￾rized his earlier work on kinematics and strength of materials.

“Measure what is measurable, and make measurable what is not so.”

“Nature is relentless and unchangeable, and it is indifferent as to whether

its hidden reasons and actions are understandable to man or not.”

“In questions of science, the authority of a thousand is not worth the

humble reasoning of a single individual.”

“I have never met a man so ignorant that I couldn’t learn something

from him.”

James Clerk Maxwell Scottish theoretical physicist and mathematician

Born: Edinburgh, Scotland, November 13, 1831

Died: Cambridge, England, November 5, 1879

Chair of Natural Philosophy at Marischal College, Aberdeen and King’s

College London; first Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of

Cambridge

• Produced a set of equations, known as ‘Maxwell’s Equations’ that ex￾plain the properties of magnetic and electric fields and help show that

light is an electromagnetic wave.

• Awarded a prize in 1859 for his essay ‘On the Stability of Saturn’s Rings’,

which described the nature of Saturn’s rings as numerous small par￾ticles rather than a solid or fluid ring.

• Developed the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, a statistical means of

describing aspects of the kinetic theory of gases.

• Regarded as the 19th-century scientist having the greatest influence on

20th-century physics; his work laid the foundation for special relativity

and quantum physics.

“All the mathematical sciences are founded on relations between physical

laws and laws of numbers, so that the aim of exact science is to reduce

the problems of nature to the determination of quantities by operations

with numbers.”

“The true logic of this world is the calculus of probabilities.”

Marie Sklodowska Curie Polish-French chemist and physicist

Born: Warsaw, Poland, November 7, 1867

Died: Haute Savoie, France, July 4, 1934

Professor of Physics at the Sorbonne; Director of French Radium Institute

in Paris

• First famous woman scientist (known as “Mother of Modern Physics”)

in the modern world.

• Awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 with Pierre Curie (her hus￾band) “in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered

by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by

Professor Henri Becquerel.”

• Awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 “in recognition of her

services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the ele￾ments radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study

of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element.”

• First woman awarded a PhD in research science in Europe; first woman

professor at the Sorbonne.

• First woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize; first person to win Nobel

Prizes in two different scientific disciplines.

• Laid the foundation for radiation therapy for treatment of cancer; con￾tributed to World War I efforts by setting up radiology units in clinics

and hospitals throughout Paris and developing X-ray techniques used

in mobile units called “petit curies” in the field.

“Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the

time to understand more, so that we may fear less.

“I have frequently been questioned, especially by women, of how I could

reconcile family life with a scientific career. Well, it has not been easy.”

“Be less curious about people and more curious about ideas.”

“I consider nature a vast chemical laboratory in which all kinds of com￾position and decompositions are formed. Vegetation is the basic instru￾ment the creator uses to set all of nature in motion.”

Linus Carl Pauling American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator

Born: Portland, Oregon, United States, February 28, 1901

Died: Big Sur, California, United States, August 19, 1994

Professor of Theoretical Chemistry at California Institute of Technology

• Awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 “for his research into the

nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the

structure of complex substances.”

• Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962 for his opposition to weapons

of mass destruction.

• Only person to have won two unshared Nobel prizes.

• One of the founders of quantum chemistry and molecular biology.

• Introduced the concepts of electronegativity and orbital hybridization.

• Named one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time by the New Scientist,

with Albert Einstein being the only other scientist from the 20th century.

• His studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia

as a molecular disease.

• Strong advocate of the use of high-dose Vitamin C as a treatment for

the common cold and cancer.

• Awarded the National Medal of Science by President Gerald R. Ford

in 1974.

• In 2008, the U.S. Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp in his honor for

his sickle cell disease work.

“Satisfaction of one’s curiosity is one of the greatest sources of

happiness in life.”

“Science is the search for truth, that is the effort to understand the world:

it involves the rejection of bias, of dogma, of revelation, but not the

rejection of morality.”

Historical Figures in Chemistry and Physics

HISTORICAL FIGURES IN CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS

Lord Kelvin (Baron William Thomson Kelvin) British physicist, mathematician, and engineer

Born: Belfast, Ireland, June 26, 1824

Died: Largs, Scotland, December 17, 1907

Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Glasgow

• Determined the value of absolute zero as 273.15 ºC.

• Developed forms of the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

• Had an additional career as an electric telegraph engineer and inventor;

knighted by Queen Victoria for his work on the transatlantic telegraph

project.

• First UK scientist to be elevated to the House of Lords; the name

“Kelvin” refers to the River Kelvin which flows close to his laboratory at

the University of Glasgow.

• Unit of kelvin for absolute temperature named in his honor.

• Collaborated with James Joule to discover the Joule–Thomson effect

that describes changes in the temperature of a gas that is expanded

through a throttling valve.

• Elected first president of the International Electrotechnical Commission

in recognition of his contributions to electrical standardization.

“If you cannot measure it, then it is not science.”

“Accurate and minute measurement seems to the non-scientific

imagination, a less lofty and dignified work than looking for something

new. But nearly all the grandest discoveries of science have been but the

rewards of accurate measurement and patient long-continued labour in

the minute sifting of numerical results.”

“Let nobody be afraid of true freedom of thought. Let us be free in

thought and criticism; but, with freedom, we are bound to come to the

conclusion that science is not antagonistic to religion, but a help to it.”

John Dalton English chemist, meteorologist, and physicist

Born: Eaglesfield, Cumberland, England, September 6, 1766

Died: Manchester, England, July 27, 1844

Member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society

• Pioneering work in the development of modern atomic theory that

evolved from his meteorological studies.

• First person to study color blindness; his discovery became known as

“Daltonism,” which became the name for color blindness.

• Known for the law of multiple proportions and the law of partial pres￾sures (known as Dalton’s law).

• Unit of dalton to denote one atomic mass unit was named in honor of

him; inorganic section of UK’s Royal Society of Chemistry is named

after Dalton (Dalton Division) and the Society’s journal for inorganic

chemistry also bears his name (Dalton Transactions).

“Matter, though divisible in an extreme degree, is nevertheless not

infinitely divisible. That is, there must be some point beyond which we

cannot go in the division of matter. ... I have chosen the word ‘atom’ to

signify these ultimate particles.”

“I was introduced to Mr. Davy, who has rooms adjoining mine (in the

Royal Institution); he is a very agreeable and intelligent young man, and

we have interesting conversation in an evening; the principal failing in

his character as a philosopher is that he does not smoke.”

Michael Faraday English chemist and physicist

Born: Newington Butts, England, September 22, 1791

Died: Hampton Court, Middlesex, England, August 25, 1867

Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain

• Discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831, the principle behind

electric transformers, generators, and electric motors; developed the

concept of a field to describe electric and magnetic forces.

• Provided the experimental and a good deal of the theoretical founda￾tion upon which Maxwell developed classical electromagnetic theory.

• First scientist to succeed in liquefying a permanent gas (carbon dioxide,

chlorine).

• Unit of farad for capacitance named in his honor.

• Received little formal education; developed a strong relationship with

Sir Humphrey Davy after attending his lectures; established a reputa￾tion as the outstanding scientist lecturer of his time.

• Responsible for coining familiar terms in electrochemistry such as elec￾trode, cathode, anode, and ion.

• Discovered the laws of chemical electrodeposition of metals from solu￾tions.

• Discovered a number of new organic compounds, including benzene.

• Inventor of the Faraday Cage, used to protect electronic equipment

from lightning strikes and electrostatic discharges; radio frequency de￾vices use Faraday Cages to prevent electromagnetic interference.

“I could trust a fact and always cross-question an assertion.”

“Nature is our kindest friend and best critic in experimental science if we

only allow her intimations to fall unbiased on our minds.”

“Nothing is too wonderful to be true, if it be consistent with the laws

of nature.”

“The lecturer should give the audience full reason to believe that all his

powers have been exerted for their pleasure and instruction.”

Robert Boyle Irish–English chemist, physicist, and natural philosopher

Born: Lismore, County Waterford, Ireland, January 27, 1627

Died: London, England, December 31, 1691

Founder of the Royal Society of London

• Best known for Boyle’s law which describes the inverse relationship be￾tween the absolute pressure and volume of a gas at constant tempera￾ture.

• Became known as the founder of modern chemistry; one of the pio￾neers of the modern experimental method; his work had a strong influ￾ence on Sir Isaac Newton.

• Devoted much of his time to theology; promoted the spread of

Christianity in the East; contributed to missionary societies; helped to

translate the Bible into various languages.

• Founded the Royal Society of London which still exists as the oldest

continuous scientific society in the world.

• First prominent scientist to perform controlled experiments and pub￾lish his work with details concerning procedures, apparatus, and obser￾vations (results).

• The phrase “chemical analysis” was coined by him.

“I look upon experimental truths as matters of great concernment to

mankind.”

“If the omniscient author of nature knew that the study of his works

tends to make men disbelieve his Being or Attributes, he would not have

given them so many invitations to study and contemplate Nature.”

HISTORICAL FIGURES IN CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS

CODATA RECOMMENDED VALUES OF THE FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS: 2010∗

Peter J. Mohr,† Barry N. Taylor,‡ and David B. Newell§

National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899-8420, USA

This report gives the 2010 self-consistent set of values of the basic constants and conversion factors of physics and

chemistry recommended by the Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA) for international use.

The 2010 adjustment takes into account the data considered in the 2006 adjustment as well as the data that became

available from 1 January 2007, after the closing date of that adjustment, until 31 December 2010, the closing date of

the new adjustment. The 2010 set replaces the previously recommended 2006 CODATA set and may also be found

on the World Wide Web at physics.nist.gov/constants.

Reference

1. Nakamura, K., K . Hagiwara, K . Hikasa, H. Murayama, M. Tanabashi, T. Watari, C. Amsler, M. Antonelli, D. M. Asner,

H. Baer, and e. al, 2010, J. Phys. G 37, 075021.

TABLE I: An abbreviated list of the CODATA recommended values of the fundamental

constants of physics and chemistry based on the 2010 adjustment.

Relative std.

Quantity Symbol Numerical value Unit uncert. ur

speed of light in vacuum c, c0 299 792 458 m s−1 exact

magnetic constant µ0 4π × 10−7 N A−2

= 12.566 370 614... × 10−7 N A−2 exact

electric constant 1/µ0c2 �0 8.854 187 817... × 10−12 F m−1 exact

Newtonian constant of gravitation G 6.673 84(80) × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 1.2 × 10−4

Planck constant h 6.626 069 57(29) × 10−34 J s 4.4 × 10−8

h/2π h¯ 1.054 571 726(47) × 10−34 J s 4.4 × 10−8

elementary charge e 1.602 176 565(35) × 10−19 C 2.2 × 10−8

magnetic flux quantum h/2e �0 2.067 833 758(46) × 10−15 Wb 2.2 × 10−8

conductance quantum 2e2

/h G0 7.748 091 7346(25) × 10−5 S 3.2 × 10−10

electron mass me 9.109 382 91(40) × 10−31 kg 4.4 × 10−8

proton mass mp 1.672 621 777(74) × 10−27 kg 4.4 × 10−8

proton-electron mass ratio mp/me 1836.152 672 45(75) 4.1 × 10−10

fine-structure constant e2

/4π�0hc¯ α 7.297 352 5698(24) × 10−3 3.2 × 10−10

inverse fine-structure constant α−1 137.035 999 074(44) 3.2 × 10−10

Rydberg constant α2mec/2h R∞ 10 973 731.568 539(55) m−1 5.0 × 10−12

∗This report was prepared by the authors under the auspices of the CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants. The members of the task

group are:

F. Cabiati, Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica, Italy

J. Fischer, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Germany

J. Flowers, National Physical Laboratory, United Kingdom

K. Fujii, National Metrology Institute of Japan, Japan

S. G. Karshenboim, Pulkovo Observatory, Russian Federation

P. J. Mohr, National Institute of Standards and Technology, United States of America

D. B. Newell, National Institute of Standards and Technology, United States of America

F. Nez, Laboratoire Kastler-Brossel, France

K. Pachucki, University of Warsaw, Poland

T. J. Quinn, Bureau international des poids et mesures

B. N. Taylor, National Institute of Standards and Technology, United States of America

B. M. Wood, National Research Council, Canada

Z. Zhang, National Institute of Metrology, China (People’s Republic of)

†Electronic address: [email protected]

‡Electronic address: [email protected]

§Electronic address: [email protected]

1-1

1-2 CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants

TABLE I: (Continued.)

Relative std.

Quantity Symbol Numerical value Unit uncert. ur

Avogadro constant NA, L 6.022 141 29(27) × 1023 mol−1 4.4 × 10−8

Faraday constant NAe F 96 485.3365(21) C mol−1 2.2 × 10−8

molar gas constant R 8.314 4621(75) J mol−1 K−1 9.1 × 10−7

Boltzmann constant R/NA k 1.380 6488(13) × 10−23 J K−1 9.1 × 10−7

Stefan-Boltzmann constant

(π2/60)k4

/h¯ 3c2 σ 5.670 373(21) × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 3.6 × 10−6

Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI

electron volt (e/C) J eV 1.602 176 565(35) × 10−19 J 2.2 × 10−8

(unified) atomic mass unit 1

12m(12C) u 1.660 538 921(73) × 10−27 kg 4.4 × 10−8

TABLE II: The CODATA recommended values of the fundamental con￾stants of physics and chemistry based on the 2010 adjustment.

Relative std.

Quantity Symbol Numerical value Unit uncert. ur

UNIVERSAL

speed of light in vacuum c, c0 299 792 458 m s−1 exact

magnetic constant µ0 4π × 10−7 N A−2

= 12.566 370 614... × 10−7 N A−2 exact

electric constant 1/µ0c2 �0 8.854 187 817... × 10−12 F m−1 exact

characteristic impedance of vacuum µ0c Z0 376.730 313 461... � exact

Newtonian constant of gravitation G 6.673 84(80) × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 1.2 × 10−4

G/hc¯ 6.708 37(80) × 10−39 (GeV/c2)−2 1.2 × 10−4

Planck constant h 6.626 069 57(29) × 10−34 J s 4.4 × 10−8

4.135 667 516(91) × 10−15 eV s 2.2 × 10−8

h/2π h¯ 1.054 571 726(47) × 10−34 J s 4.4 × 10−8

6.582 119 28(15) × 10−16 eV s 2.2 × 10−8

hc¯ 197.326 9718(44) MeV fm 2.2 × 10−8

Planck mass (¯hc/G)1/2 mP 2.176 51(13) × 10−8 kg 6.0 × 10−5

energy equivalent mPc2 1.220 932(73) × 1019 GeV 6.0 × 10−5

Planck temperature (¯hc5/G)1/2/k TP 1.416 833(85) × 1032 K 6.0 × 10−5

Planck length ¯h/mPc = (¯hG/c3)1/2 lP 1.616 199(97) × 10−35 m 6.0 × 10−5

Planck time lP/c = (¯hG/c5)1/2 tP 5.391 06(32) × 10−44 s 6.0 × 10−5

ELECTROMAGNETIC

elementary charge e 1.602 176 565(35) × 10−19 C 2.2 × 10−8

e/h 2.417 989 348(53) × 1014 A J−1 2.2 × 10−8

magnetic flux quantum h/2e �0 2.067 833 758(46) × 10−15 Wb 2.2 × 10−8

conductance quantum 2e2

/h G0 7.748 091 7346(25) × 10−5 S 3.2 × 10−10

inverse of conductance quantum G−1

0 12 906.403 7217(42) � 3.2 × 10−10

Josephson constant1 2e/h KJ 483 597.870(11) × 109 Hz V−1 2.2 × 10−8

von Klitzing constant2 h/e2 = µ0c/2α RK 25 812.807 4434(84) � 3.2 × 10−10

Bohr magneton eh¯ /2me µB 927.400 968(20) × 10−26 J T−1 2.2 × 10−8

5.788 381 8066(38) × 10−5 eV T−1 6.5 × 10−10

µB/h 13.996 245 55(31) × 109 Hz T−1 2.2 × 10−8

µB/hc 46.686 4498(10) m−1 T−1 2.2 × 10−8

µB/k 0.671 713 88(61) K T−1 9.1 × 10−7

nuclear magneton eh¯ /2mp µN 5.050 783 53(11) × 10−27 J T−1 2.2 × 10−8

3.152 451 2605(22) × 10−8 eV T−1 7.1 × 10−10

µN/h 7.622 593 57(17) MHz T−1 2.2 × 10−8

µN/hc 2.542 623 527(56) × 10−2 m−1 T−1 2.2 × 10−8

µN/k 3.658 2682(33) × 10−4 K T−1 9.1 × 10−7

1See Table IV for the conventional value adopted internationally for realizing representations of the volt using the Josephson effect.

2See Table IV for the conventional value adopted internationally for realizing representations of the ohm using the quantum Hall effect.

CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants 1-3

TABLE II: (Continued).

Relative std.

Quantity Symbol Numerical value Unit uncert. ur

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR

General

fine-structure constant e2

/4π�0hc¯ α 7.297 352 5698(24) × 10−3 3.2 × 10−10

inverse fine-structure constant α−1 137.035 999 074(44) 3.2 × 10−10

Rydberg constant α2mec/2h R∞ 10 973 731.568 539(55) m−1 5.0 × 10−12

R∞c 3.289 841 960 364(17) × 1015 Hz 5.0 × 10−12

R∞hc 2.179 872 171(96) × 10−18 J 4.4 × 10−8

13.605 692 53(30) eV 2.2 × 10−8

Bohr radius α/4πR∞ = 4π�0h¯ 2

/mee2 a0 0.529 177 210 92(17) × 10−10 m 3.2 × 10−10

Hartree energy e2

/4π�0a0 = 2R∞hc = α2mec2 Eh 4.359 744 34(19) × 10−18 J 4.4 × 10−8

27.211 385 05(60) eV 2.2 × 10−8

quantum of circulation h/2me 3.636 947 5520(24) × 10−4 m2 s−1 6.5 × 10−10

h/me 7.273 895 1040(47) × 10−4 m2 s−1 6.5 × 10−10

Electroweak

Fermi coupling constant3 GF/(¯hc)3 1.166 364(5) × 10−5 GeV−2 4.3 × 10−6

weak mixing angle4 θW (on-shell scheme)

sin2 θW = s2

W ≡ 1 − (mW/mZ)2 sin2 θW 0.2223(21) 9.5 × 10−3

Electron, e−

electron mass me 9.109 382 91(40) × 10−31 kg 4.4 × 10−8

5.485 799 0946(22) × 10−4 u 4.0 × 10−10

energy equivalent mec2 8.187 105 06(36) × 10−14 J 4.4 × 10−8

0.510 998 928(11) MeV 2.2 × 10−8

electron-muon mass ratio me/mµ 4.836 331 66(12) × 10−3 2.5 × 10−8

electron-tau mass ratio me/mτ 2.875 92(26) × 10−4 9.0 × 10−5

electron-proton mass ratio me/mp 5.446 170 2178(22) × 10−4 4.1 × 10−10

electron-neutron mass ratio me/mn 5.438 673 4461(32) × 10−4 5.8 × 10−10

electron-deuteron mass ratio me/md 2.724 437 1095(11) × 10−4 4.0 × 10−10

electron-triton mass ratio me/mt 1.819 200 0653(17) × 10−4 9.1 × 10−10

electron-helion mass ratio me/mh 1.819 543 0761(17) × 10−4 9.2 × 10−10

electron to alpha particle mass ratio me/mα 1.370 933 555 78(55) × 10−4 4.0 × 10−10

electron charge to mass quotient −e/me −1.758 820 088(39) × 1011 C kg−1 2.2 × 10−8

electron molar mass NAme M(e), Me 5.485 799 0946(22) × 10−7 kg mol−1 4.0 × 10−10

Compton wavelength h/mec λC 2.426 310 2389(16) × 10−12 m 6.5 × 10−10

λC/2π = αa0 = α2

/4πR∞ λC 386.159 268 00(25) × 10−15 m 6.5 × 10−10

classical electron radius α2a0 re 2.817 940 3267(27) × 10−15 m 9.7 × 10−10

Thomson cross section (8π/3)r 2

e σe 0.665 245 8734(13) × 10−28 m2 1.9 × 10−9

electron magnetic moment µe −928.476 430(21) × 10−26 J T−1 2.2 × 10−8

to Bohr magneton ratio µe/µB −1.001 159 652 180 76(27) 2.6 × 10−13

to nuclear magneton ratio µe/µN −1838.281 970 90(75) 4.1 × 10−10

electron magnetic moment

anomaly |µe|/µB − 1 ae 1.159 652 180 76(27) × 10−3 2.3 × 10−10

electron g-factor −2(1 + ae) ge −2.002 319 304 361 53(53) 2.6 × 10−13

electron-muon magnetic moment ratio µe/µµ 206.766 9896(52) 2.5 × 10−8

electron-proton magnetic moment ratio µe/µp −658.210 6848(54) 8.1 × 10−9

electron to shielded proton magnetic

moment ratio (H2O, sphere, 25 ◦C) µe/µ�

p −658.227 5971(72) 1.1 × 10−8

electron-neutron magnetic moment ratio µe/µn 960.920 50(23) 2.4 × 10−7

electron-deuteron magnetic moment ratio µe/µd −2143.923 498(18) 8.4 × 10−9

electron to shielded helion magnetic

moment ratio (gas, sphere, 25 ◦C) µe/µ�

h 864.058 257(10) 1.2 × 10−8

3Value recommended by the Particle Data Group (Nakamura et al., 2010). 4Based on the ratio of the masses of the W and Z bosons mW/mZ recommended by the Particle Data Group (Nakamura et al., 2010). The value

for sin2θW they recommend, which is based on a particular variant of the modified minimal subtraction (MS) scheme, is sin2θˆ

W(MZ) = 0.231 16(13).