Conservation Biology

Conservation Biology

Foundations, Concepts, Applications

Conservation Biology

Foundations, Concepts, Applications

Second Edition

Fred Van Dyke

Wheaton College

Illustrators and Permissions Assistants

Michael J. Bigelow

Lauren Anderson

Editorial Assistant

Jo Ebihara

Springer Science and Business Media

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Fred Van Dyke

Wheaton College, Illinois

USA

Cover Photograph Description

Wiwik is a citizen of Indonesia, currently completing her

BA degree in psychology. Her professors think she is an

excellent student, but Wiwik is featured on the cover of

this textbook for another reason. She works as a caregiver

to orphaned orangutans at the Nyaru Menteng Orangutan

Rehabilitation Center in Indonesia’s Kalimantan province.

The orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is listed by the World

Conservation Union (IUCN) as an endangered species. The

greatest threat to current populations, now confined to the

island of Borneo, is tropical deforestation. But orangutan

populations are also threatened in another way. The demand

for infant orangutans in the pet trade, and the large sums of

money that an infant orangutan can bring on the black mar￾ket, motivate many people to shoot nursing mother orangu￾tans and sell the infant. Although illegal, many consider the

potential gain worth the risk. If caught, the hunter may be

fined or sent to jail, but that solves only part of the problem.

The infant and now orphaned orangutan has no skills or

experience needed to live alone in the forest. Released back

to the wild in this state, it would perish.

Because orangutans rely so extensively on learning

rather than instinct, they spend 7–8 years with their moth￾ers before becoming independent. To rehabilitate orphaned

orangutans, workers like Wiwik educate them in an inten￾sive “curriculum” of foraging techniques, nest building,

arboreal locomotion, predator avoidance, and other skills

needed to survive in the wild. In our cover photo, Wiwik

is showing two 5- to 6-year-old female orangutans, Sirius

(next to Wiwik on her left) and Betty (back to the camera)

how to open a termite mound and extract the termites from

it for food.

Wiwik’s efforts are informed by careful scientific

studies of orangutan food habits, behavior, social rela￾tions, and habitat requirements, but the problem she is

attempting to solve, the problem of the conservation

of the orangutan, is not, strictly speaking, a scientific

question. It is a complex problem that requires an

understanding not only conservation science, but of

economics, law, ethics, and national and international

politics. That is why I chose to make my initial invita￾tion to readers with this picture. It is a picture of the

complexity of conservation biology: an international,

multi-disciplinary effort in which experiment and

management must be combined, and are often blurred,

in projects fraught with uncertainty, but not bereft of

hope. As this text goes to press, organizations like

the Orangutan Conservancy, which administers Nyaru

Menteng, are working with the Indonesian government

and national and international conservation organiza￾tions to make the first successful transitions of these

orphaned orangutans into independent, free-living

individuals who can again become part of wild popula￾tions. It is an effort in which a dedicated worker like

Wiwik may have as much to contribute as the world’s

most famous conservation scientist. And, if there is to

be hope for success, it is an effort that will need both.

It is also an effort that will need a new generation of

conservation scientists, managers, policy makers, and

activists if it is to continue. I offer this book as an

invitation to the reader, whatever your background and

wherever in the world you may be, to learn about this

effort, and to join it.

v

Foreword

I am really delighted that a second expanded edition

of this textbook is being printed. The first edition has

been useful enough and personally it has been invalu￾able for my teaching in Latin America. This edition

has more international examples and so will appeal to

an even wider audience. This is a significant update

and revision of a teaching resource of major importance

to the teaching of conservation biology.

Conservation is becoming a more urgent discipline

day by day as the gravity of the environmental crisis

deepens. The reality of climate change is upon us and

we know that it is seriously affecting biodiversity in

many parts of the world. It is therefore essential to train

students based on the large amount of good conservation

science that is now available. The author of this text has

made a thorough study of this literature and analysed it

succinctly and accurately. This text covers both the his￾toric and the most recent developments in conservation.

It treats biodiversity as a whole ranging from the species

and habitat diversity to DNA and genetic diversity.

The environmental crisis is so great that science alone

will not resolve it. It has become a moral and ethical and

even a religious crisis. One of the aspects I most like about

this text is that as well as treating the practical side of conser￾vation it discusses the philosophical and ethical aspects. It

also presents a balanced view of policy and the economics

of the subject. If the political and the ethical issues are not

addressed we will not win the battle to make the neces￾sary changes that will conserve a major proportion of the

world’s biodiversity. However, there is also much in this

text for the practical field based conservationist.

Fred Van Dyke has done an excellent job of presenting

an ever expanding field in an accessible way. The abundant

illustrations and the tables are a great help to make the data

readily understandable. I urge all students who take up this

text to consider all these aspects carefully to prepare you for

an exciting career that is vital for the future of our planet.

Ghillean Prance

Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 1988–1999

vii

Preface

In the United States, there is a saying among career politi￾cians. “You’re not really an incumbent until you win your

first re-election.” So in writing textbooks, one is not at

all confident of having made much of a contribution after

only one edition. The first edition is very educational to the

author, but many of the best lessons begin to sink in only

after the text is in press, at which point they are too late to

benefit the reader.

This second edition of Conservation Biology:

Foundations, Concepts, Applications reflects some of

what I learned from the experience of writing the first edi￾tion, both what to do and what not to do, what to leave in

and what to leave out. Of course, one not only learns from

writing, but from having written. Once a book is released

into the world, it takes on a life of its own, and an author

learns as much from the responses of his readers as from

the research he invested in writing. This second edition is

not only informed by new developments in the discipline

of conservation biology, but also by the experience of

those who have taught the discipline using my text, and I

am grateful for their feedback and candor.

Some things are unchanged from the first edition, not

only in the book but in the convictions that have moti￾vated me to repeat the effort. I believe, more strongly

than ever, that conservation biology should be taught as a

unity of thought and practice expressed through a coher￾ent foundation of concepts, theories, facts, and values, not

as a loose assemblage of impressive disciplinary exper￾tise. A unified textbook of conservation biology does not

attempt to present every subject that conservation biolo￾gists have studied, but instead defines the context and

relationships of controlling ideas, problems, and applica￾tions of the discipline. Critical facts and case histories are

important, but they are meaningless without context. We

do not remember facts that we memorized years, or even

days, ago simply for the purpose of passing a test. Rather,

we remember information that skilled teachers imbued

with meaning, that inspired and enlightened us, and that

led to an understanding of our own discipline, and our

place and purpose in it. I have also learned from my col￾leagues who specialize in the educational process itself

(my valued friends in the “Education” department), that

effective learners who display high, long-term retention

rates of what they have studied learn highly organized

information. Ineffective learners with low retention rates

learn disorganized information. Therefore, as in the first

edition, I have given considerable attention to the organi￾zation of ideas in every chapter, and among chapters, so

that the organization of ideas is itself part of the way that

students will understand the concepts presented. It is the

connections of these ideas to one another that matter as

much as the ideas themselves.

Guided by these convictions, I have organized this second

edition around the same fundamental questions that guided

the first edition, questions that I believe give meaning to

diverse research and management efforts in all aspects of

conservation biology. First, how did conservation biology

become a distinct discipline, and what keeps conserva￾tion biology from being absorbed into related disciplines?

Second, what are the fundamental intellectual, conceptual,

and practical problems that conservation biologists must

address and solve? Third, what is the role of conservation

biology in achieving “success” in conservation in ways that

affect all dimensions of the human experience?

So What’s New in the Second Edition?

Although these foundational convictions remain unchanged,

practical experience with the first edition, my own and my

colleagues who used it, has led me to change some specif￾ics. The first edition was encumbered with a strong North

American bias, especially in its explanation of the history

of conservation and conservation law. Without presuming

to have eliminated that bias entirely, I have been intentional

in this second edition in presenting the history of conserva￾tion, and its legal empowerment and support, in the con￾text of a global conservation community and perspective.

ix

North American examples and experiences have a place in

understanding that perspective, but they will no longer be

offered as unreflectively or as exclusively as I did in my

first effort.

Although the first edition enjoyed course adoptions in

over 150 institutions worldwide, even those professors

most enthusiastic about the text almost unanimously

expressed discontent with the fifth chapter, “The Historic

and Foundational Paradigms of Conservation Biology.”

I have come to agree with that judgment. The paradigm

chapter was repetitive, cumbersome, and not well con￾nected to the rest of the text, so I have removed it. Some

consideration of historic conservation science paradigms

remains important, but these are now dealt with either in

the explanation of the history of conservation and conser￾vation biology or in chapters that address more specific

topics in genetics, populations, habitats, landscape ecol￾ogy, or ecosystem management. I have also eliminated

the chapter on Restoration Ecology, not because this

subject is unimportant, but because restoration manifests

itself differently in genetics than it does in landscapes,

and so restoration is dealt in these more specific contexts

in individual chapters.

As there are elements that have been removed, there

are things that have been added. The chapter on conser￾vation genetics and the chapter on the conservation of

populations, each formerly presented as a single chapter,

have been split into two chapters for each topic. For both

genetics and populations, the initial chapter explores the

theory underpinning an understanding of their applications

in conservation, and a second chapter then gives more

detailed examination to specific applications and case his￾tories that make use of such theory. Of course, these kinds

of boundaries are invariably leaky, and the reader will find

these distinctions expressed more in emphasis than in

absolute, uncompromising divisions. In every chapter, old

or new, I was blessed with the reviews of highly qualified

scientists on specific topics, and, with their help and guid￾ance, I have added examples of the most recent theoretical

developments, experiments, and field studies on those top￾ics in each chapter.

Perhaps the most important change for users of the first

edition will be the new chapter five, which takes up a topic

that was ignored in my first edition. That is the subject

of global climate change, its current and projected effects

on world biodiversity, and the conservation strategies cur￾rently being developed to mitigate those effects. Writing

an entirely new chapter is harder than intellectually refur￾bishing material you have written before, but there was

no question that a chapter on climate change had to be

included. Readers will judge the quality of the effort, but

the intent is simple: to make climate-mediated conserva￾tion strategies part of “ordinary science” and discussion in

conservation biology. Given the current state of things, I

could not do otherwise.

Finally, I take the same risks I took in the first edition

in speaking directly to students and prospective future

practitioners of conservation biology in the final chapter

(Chapter 14). Conservation biology is not practiced by

textbooks. It is practiced by conservation biologists. I

believe if you want someone to do something, the right

and courteous thing to do is to ask them to do it, explain

why, and show them the means and resources they will

need to succeed. In this second edition as in the first, I

have decided to make that appeal directly to my student

readers in answering the question: how does one become a

conservation biologist?

The Differences in This Book

and the Difference It Makes

Like the first edition, this second edition strives to be

genuinely interdisciplinary in its approach. Although an

understanding of biological facts and concepts is essen￾tial and given pride of place, the text takes seriously the

contributions of law, political science, economics, ethics,

sociology, and other disciplines to the modern conserva￾tion effort. Additionally, my book does not conceal issues

of ambiguity and uncertainty in conservation science, or

issues of controversy in conservation ethics and policy.

I do not believe that we should shield students from the

inherently controversial, and often contentious, nature

of the scientific effort, nor should we try to protect them

from the messy uncertainties that inevitably arise when

we attempt to translate research results into management

decisions. Many years of working with US state and

federal conservation agencies, combined with the shared

experiences of other conservation professionals from

around the world whom I respect, have convinced me

that such uncertainty is best acknowledged quickly and

forthrightly, lest it lead to recommendations that are more

precise than accurate, and produce professionals that are

more arrogant than useful. Thus, this second edition, like

the first, not only explains, but also critiques the founda￾tional and current practices, techniques, and concepts of

conservation biology. My purpose in taking this approach

is not to create a spirit of negativism or confusion, but

to provoke current and future conservation biologists to

examine their foundational premises carefully and make

continued efforts to improve all aspects of conservation

practice.

I close this preface by noting one other thing that is

the same in the first and second editions, but something

that only the feedback from the first edition has made me

realize that I should explicitly state. Compared to other

texts in a variety of disciplines, including conservation

biology, my book will often use more direct quotes from

primary sources, take more time to explain or dissect an

individual case history or theory, or give greater attention

x Preface

to examining the sources or implications of ideas. There

is a method to this madness. With my own students, my

goal is to teach them ways to think about, understand, and,

eventually, critique even the best examples of scientific

investigation. I do this because I do not want them to be

students forever. I need help. I need their help, and I want

them, in time, to become my helpers and, eventually, my

colleagues. I cannot accomplish this transformation simply

by summarizing the final conclusions of innumerable stud￾ies and presenting that distillation as a “list” of things to

know, however efficient and time-saving such an approach

might be. I must instead attempt to get them to re-create

the intellectual process that led to the formation of the con￾clusion. That takes more time, and requires an emphasis

on processing information rather than simply presenting

it. For those who believe that the greater the density of

information and summary conclusion in a textbook the

better, I can only say, with respectful candor, that my book

is not the one you should use for that approach. For those

who share my commitment to helping students re-create an

intellectual process of discovery, insight, and application

that, with practice, eventually leads them to form original

intellectual creations and applications of their own, I hope

you will find this book a useful tool, and I welcome your

feedback on how to do it better. I invite all users of this

book, whether instructors, students, or inquisitive readers

who want to know more about conservation biology, to

join me in the adventure of this effort.

Preface xi

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the reviewers who gave me the benefit of

their time, knowledge, experience and expertise to enhance

my understanding of all of the topics covered in this text,

and to point out my errors of fact and interpretation. I am

just as grateful for their insights about teaching, letting

me know, from their experience, what works in a class￾room and what does not. They have saved me as much

embarrassment, and users of the book as much frustration,

as they could. Errors and misjudgments that remain are

entirely my responsibility. My illustration and permission

assistants, Michael J. Bigelow and Lauren Anderson, dis￾played unflagging patience and fortitude in working with

a difficult boss, and amazing creativity in finding ways to

transform some of my abstract concepts into tables, graphs

and figures that captured concepts elegantly and visually

for the students who will use this book. Their pictures

often really were worth a thousand words. At Wheaton

College, Biology Department Chair Rod Scott, Dean

of Natural and Social Sciences Dorothy Chappell, and

Wheaton College Provost Stanton Jones were exceedingly

gracious and generous in providing me with time, funds,

and, at critical moments, much needed encouragement

to stick with the work and not give up. I am particularly

grateful to Drs. Jones, Chappell and Scott for approving

and providing funds, sometimes on very short notice, for

this work from the Aldeen Grant program of Wheaton

College, and to the college alumni and donors who made

such funds possible to support this effort. My editorial

assistant Jo Ebihara checked every reference, constructed

the index, and developed the glossary with skill and speed,

two traits that can be dangerous to combine in most peo￾ple, but were superbly manifested in Jo. As with my first

edition, I continued to be blessed with the world’s most

capable secretary, Teresa Cerchio Brown, who copied,

assembled, and arranged electronic and print material until

it had cluttered every part of her computer and office, but

never complained and never failed to get everything right.

Everyone associated with my new publisher, Springer

Science and Business Media, was most helpful and con￾siderate. My editor, Catherine Cotton, worked diligently

and patiently to develop our original book proposal and

guide it through the process of corporate acceptance and

approval. Ria Kanters, Publishing Assistant in Forestry,

Ecology, and Conservation in charge of actually assem￾bling my material into a book, displayed the same levels

of diligence and patience (perhaps even more patience) in

enduring some of my missed deadlines and late-arriving

material and assembling it into the present text. Finally

I am most grateful to my wife, Linda, who must have

thought during some parts of the writing process that her

husband had died or run off, since he was rarely seen at

home. The end of a thing is better than the beginning, and

the end of this book, for now, allows me to look forward to

beginning to re-enter something like a normal life.

Fred Van Dyke

Wheaton College

27 September 2007

xiii

About The Author

Fred Van Dyke is a professor of biology at Wheaton College

(Illinois). He has previously served on the faculties of

Northwestern College (Iowa) and the Au Sable Institute for

Environmental Studies, as a wildlife biologist for the Montana

Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, as a scientific and

professional consultant to the US National Park Service,

the US Forest Service, the Pew Charitable Trust, and to

various private environmental and conservation consultants.

He is the author of numerous publications on animal home

range and habitat use, management and conservation of

animal populations, management of successional processes to

conserve habitat, and conservation values and ethics.

xv

Contents

Cover Photograph Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

About The Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Second and First Edition Reviewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix

1 The History and Distinctions of Conservation Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. Perspectives and Questions for an Inquiry into Conservation Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2. The Origins of Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.1. Conservation in Historical Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.2. Cultural Foundations of Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.3. Conservation as Expression of Privilege. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2.4. Conservation as Right Relationship with Nature – The Arcadian Vision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2.5. Conservation as Knowledge – The Invitation to Study and Appreciate Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2.6. Conservation to Save Species – Origins of the First Conservation Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2.7. Conservation as Preservation of Landscape – The Washburn Expedition Goes to Yellowstone . . . . . . . 9

1.3. Intellectual Foundations and History of Conservation in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.3.1. Conservation as Moral Mission – John Muir and Theodore Roosevelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.3.2. “Scientifi c Conservation” Through Sustained Yield – Moral Mission Gives Way to

Utilitarian Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.3.2.1. The Federal Government Empowers Conservation as Science and Democratic Ideal . . . . . . . . 12

1.3.2.2. German Infl uences in Conservation – Forest Monocultures and Maximum Yields. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.3.2.3. The Rise of the Resource Conservation Ethic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.3.2.4. Aldo Leopold and the Formation of the “Wilderness Ideal” in Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.4. The Emergence of Global Conservation – Shared Interests Lead to Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.4.1. Multilateral Treaties – The Beginnings of International Conservation Efforts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.4.1.1. Conservation Driven by Shared Commercial Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.4.1.2. International Protection of Migratory Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.4.2. Forums for International Conservation – The United Nations and the

International Union for the Conservation of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.5. Conservation in the Developing World: New Expressions of Resource Management,

National Parks and Nature Preserves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.6. Return to Start: What is the Place of Conservation Biology in the World

Conservation Effort? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.6.1. The Emergence of Conservation Biology from the Applied Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.6.2. Conceptually Distinctive Characteristics of Conservation Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1.7. Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

xvii

xviii Contents

2 Values and Ethics in Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.1. What Does Science Have to Do with Value?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.1.1. Avoiding the Absurd – Being Self-Aware of Values in Conservation Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.1.2. Recognizing Management Actions as Value Judgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.1.3. Values and Ethics – Defi nitions and Initial Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.2. The Problem of Categories: How Do We Classify Different Kinds

of Conservation Values?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.2.1. An Overview of Value Categories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.2.2. Instrumental Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.2.2.1. General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.2.2.2. Determining Attitudes with Sociological Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.2.2.3. Tools of Economic Valuation: Cost–Benefi t Analysis

and Contingency Valuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.2.2.4. Contingent Valuation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.2.2.5. Criticisms of Contingent Valuation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.3. The Problem of Moral Value: Assigning Intrinsic Values in Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.3.1. Where Does Intrinsic Value Reside?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.3.2. Ecocentrism as a Basis for the Intrinsic Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2.3.3. Intrinsic Value in the Judeo-Christian Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

2.3.4. Other Western Religious Traditions – Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.3.5. Eastern Religious Traditions and Conservation – Hinduism and Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.3.5.1. Hinduism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.3.5.2. Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2.3.6. Practical Implications – Faith-Based Organizations in Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.3.6.1. “Goal Rational” Versus “Value Rational” Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.3.6.2. Jewish and Christian FBOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.3.6.3. FBOs in Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.3.6.4. Conservation Activism in Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.3.6.5. Conservation FBOs in Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.3.6.6. Future Roles and Contributions of FBOs in Global Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.4. The Problem of Practice: Do Conservation Values Require Conservation Virtues? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.4.1. The Problem of Plastic Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.4.2. From Values to Virtues: Virtue-Based Ethics in Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

2.4.3. What are Appropriate Conservation Virtues? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

2.5. Orphaned Orangutans: Ethical Applications in Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.6. Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3 The Legal Foundations of Conservation Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.1. Conservation Law and Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.1.1. Context and Defi nition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.1.2. Historical Origins of Conservation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3.2. Environmental and Conservation Law in Individual Nations: Modern Examples

from the United States, South Africa, and Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3.2.1. General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3.2.2. Common Characteristics of Effective National Conservation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

3.2.3. The US National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.2.3.1. NEPA’s History and Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.2.3.2. NEPA and US Federal Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3.2.3.3. Preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3.2.3.4. Shortcomings of the National Environmental Policy Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3.2.4. The US Endangered Species Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

3.2.4.1. Historical Origins and Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

3.2.4.2. The Endangered Species Act and Landowner Confl icts:

The Case of the Red-Cockaded Woodpecker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Contents xix

3.2.4.3. San Bruno Mountain and the Evolution of Habitat Conservation Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.2.4.4. Criticisms of the Endangered Species Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

3.2.5. Water as an Inalienable Reserve – South Africa and Australia Establish Radical

Categories for Conservation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3.3. International Conservation Law: Concept and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.3.1. General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.3.2. A Forum for Cooperation and Legal Foundation – The United Nations

and Its Environmental Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.3.2.1. Background and Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.3.2.2. Stockholm: The Beginnings of Modern International Conservation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.3.2.3. Protection of Endangered Species: The Convention on International

Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

3.3.2.4. Rio 1992 – Combining Conservation and Economics

in International Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

3.4. The Process: Creating and Enforcing International Conservation Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

3.5. The Problem of Interdependence: How Does One Nation Promote Global

Conservation without Negative Effects on Other Nations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

3.5.1. The Nature of International Legal Interdependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

3.5.2. Case History I: Tuna and Dolphins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

3.5.3. Case History II: Shrimp and Sea Turtles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

3.5.4. Outcomes and Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3.6. Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4 Biodiversity: Concept, Measurement, and Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.1. Biodiversity and Conservation Biology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4.2. The Problem of Concept and Quantity: How Do We Know What Biodiversity is and

How Do We Measure it? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4.2.1. A Conceptual Defi nition of Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4.2.2. Biodiversity and the Defi nition of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4.2.3. Contemporary Issues of the Species Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4.2.4. Implications of the Species Concept in Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

4.2.5. Measuring Biodiversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.2.5.1. What Biodiversity Measurements Tell Us. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.2.5.2. Alpha Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.2.5.3. Beta Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4.2.5.4. Gamma Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

4.2.6. Application and Integration of Diversity Measures to Address Issues

in Conservation: A Case Study from Eastern Amazonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

4.2.7. Problems of Diversity Indices and Alternative Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

4.3. The Problem of Process and Pattern: What Explains Variation in Local Biodiversity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

4.3.1. Niche Assembly Theories of Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

4.3.2. The Unifi ed Neutral Theory of Biodiversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

4.4. The Problem of Dispersion: Where is Biodiversity Located? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

4.4.1. Global Patterns of Biodiversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

4.4.2. Biodiversity Indices: Can We Find “Hotspots” with Incomplete Information? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

4.5. The Problem of Quantity: How Much Biodiversity is There?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.5.1. General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.5.2. Biodiversity and Rarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.5.2.1. The Problem of Rarity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.5.2.2. Habitat Generalists Versus Habitat Specialists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

4.5.2.3. Large Populations Versus Small Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

4.5.2.4. Widespread Distribution Versus Restricted Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

4.5.3. The Problem of Endemism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

4.5.3.1. Endemism in the Extreme – A Case History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

xx Contents

4.5.3.2. Endemism, Biodiversity, and Rarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

4.5.3.3. Endemism and Island Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

4.6. The Problem of Application: How Do We Manage Biodiversity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.6.1. The Problem with “Hotspots” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.6.2. Identifying Areas of Conservation Value Using Remotely Sensed Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.6.3. Tracking Biodiversity Using Indicator Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.6.3.1. Biodiversity Indicators: Using “Surrogate” Species as Biodiversity Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.6.3.2. Taxon-Based Biodiversity Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

4.6.3.3. Structure- and Function-Based Biodiversity Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

4.6.3.4. Bison as an Example of a Function-Based Keystone Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

4.6.3.5. Ecological Redundancy and Function-Based Biodiversity Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

4.7. The Problem of Conservation: How Do We Identify and Prioritize Areas to Preserve Biodiversity? . . . . . . . . 111

4.7.1. Current Global Prioritization Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

4.7.2. Management Approaches to Biodiversity at Landscape Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

4.7.2.1. Gathering Appropriate Background Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

4.7.2.2. Maintaining Ecological and Evolutionary Processes Promoting Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

4.7.2.3. Regional Biodiversity Management – Defi ning Functional Conservation Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

4.7.3. Building Biodiversity Conservation into Existing Management Plans –

The New South Wales Environmental Services Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

4.8. Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

5 Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5.1. Climate and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5.1.1. Why Does Climate Change Threaten Biodiversity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5.1.2. What Is “Climate” and What Is “Climate Change”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5.1.3. Should Contemporary Global Warming Be Called “Climate Change?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

5.1.4. The Implications of Rapidly Rising CO2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

5.1.5. Why We Call It “Climate” Change – Non-temperature Variations

in Climate in a Warming World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

5.2. The Global Fingerprint of Climate Change on Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

5.2.1. Extinction Patterns in Edith’s Checkerspot Butterfl y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

5.2.2. Finding the Global Fingerprint of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

5.2.3. Can Climate Change Cause Extinction of Local Populations?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

5.2.3.1. Climate Change and Pikas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

5.2.3.2. Climate Change and Desert Bighorn Sheep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

5.3. Climate Change in Ecosystems – Species Loss and System Degradation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

5.3.1. Climate Change at Ecosystem Levels: Biome Boundaries and Elevational Shifts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

5.3.2. Life Zone Changes in Tropical Forests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

5.3.3. Elevational Shifts in Tropical Cloud Forests: The Case of the Golden Toad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

5.4. Climate-Mediated Mechanisms of Ecosystem Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

5.4.1. Climate Infl uences on a Keystone Species: The Case of the Whitebark Pine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

5.4.2. Climate Infl uences on Ecosystem Processes: Invasive Species in a Warmer World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

5.4.3. Climate Infl uences on Ecosystem Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

5.4.3.1. The Future of Coral in Warmer Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

5.4.3.2. Loss of Polar Sea Ice: Implications for Polar Biodiversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

5.5. Conservation Planning and Climate Change: Creating Climate-Integrated

Conservation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

5.5.1. The Bioclimate Envelope: Modeling Climate Effects on Individual Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

5.5.2. Climate Change-Integrated Strategies for Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

5.5.3. Modeling Efforts to Predict Future Responses to Ongoing Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

5.5.4. Errors of Application: Use and Misuse of Endangerment Criteria

to Model Climate Change Effects on Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

5.6. Policy Initiatives for Climate Change and Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

5.7. Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150