Carbon dioxide capture for storage in deep geologic formations

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage

in Deep Geologic Formations –

Results from the CO2

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Capture and Separation of Carbon Dioxide

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Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage

in Deep Geologic Formations –

Results from the CO2

Capture Project

Capture and Separation of Carbon Dioxide

from Combustion Sources

Edited by

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Senior Technical Advisor

Advanced Resources International, Inc.

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Preface

Gardiner Hill, BP, plc, Sunbury-on-Thames, UK

Chairman, CO2 Capture Project Executive Board

We are seeking solutions to one of the great international challenges – reducing carbon emissions and their impact

on climate change. Over the past decade, the prospect of climate change resulting from anthropogenic CO2 has

become a matter of deep and growing public concern. Many believe that the precautionary principle is the

appropriate response at this time and there is increasing consensus that the action to mitigate this human induced

climate change will require not just reducing anthropogenic CO2 emissions, but more importantly stabilizing the

overall concentration of CO2 in the earth’s atmosphere. There are many technology options that can help, but it

appears that almost all will add cost to the price we pay for energy.

Given the scale of the climate change challenge and the need to continue to provide affordable energy in many

different cultural, social and operational settings, a portfolio of approaches will be required. The best solution will

not be the same in each case. It seems that the full portfolio of energy technologies will be required. Yet, one option

that has broad potential application is the technology of CO2 capture and geological storage. Capture technology is

already in use, but only at small scale. While this technology is proven, it needs considerable development to

enable scale-up for industrial application and to reduce the cost of what is a very expensive technology today.

Geological storage, on the other hand, builds on the oil and gas industries’ considerable experience of injecting gas

for enhanced oil recovery (EOR), gas storage operations and reservoir management, which are all today

successfully managed at scale. Capturing and storing CO2 from the combustion of coal, oil and natural gas could

deliver material reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and provide a bridge to a lower carbon energy future.

That is why the participants of the CO2 Capture Project (CCP) decided to work together and collaborate with

governments, industry, academic institutions and environmental interest groups, to develop technologies that will

greatly reduce the cost of CO2 capture and to demonstrate that underground, geological storage is safe and secure.

The goal is to reduce the environmental impact of fossil fuel based energy production and use – over the same

period of time when global energy demand is forecast to continue to grow strongly – in the most cost effective

manner.

Three governments and eight companies have jointly funded, and actively participated in, the CCP. The best minds

and research laboratories have been brought together to identify and pursue the most promising of the CO2 capture

technologies that could be commercially ready in the 2012 time frame. A wide range of academic and commercial

institutions, all subject to open and comprehensive peer review, have provided breakthrough thinking, concepts

and technology. The views of external bodies, such as environmental groups have been incorporated. Through

international public–private collaboration, we believe the CO2 Capture Project has made a real difference by

stimulating rapid technology development and creating the new state of the art.

The CCP book contains technical papers and findings from all contractors involved in the first phase of the project.

This work is the combined effort of over 70 technology providers, 21 academic institutions, six NGOs and each of

the eight participating companies. In addition, the work benefited from the input and guidance from our four

participating government organisations. The book is compiled in two volumes: Volume 1 covers capture

technology development, our work in the area of capture and storage policy, the Technology Advisory Board

project review and the common economic model that was developed to enable us to compare performance on a

common basis and present the economic results. Volume 2 covers the geological storage program which we called

SMV – Storage, Monitoring and Verification. These two volumes should serve as a valuable reference document

v

for a wide spectrum of industry, academia and interested stakeholders on technology development for CO2 capture

and geological storage.

The CCP has achieved its Phase I goals for lower cost CO2 capture technology and furthered the safe, reliable

option of using geological storage. The results speak for themselves; delivering upwards of a 50% reduction in the

cost of CO2 capture in a 3 year time frame, is a considerable accomplishment. The results also offer promise that

further significant improvements are likely in the performance and costs of this technology. The geological storage

program has pioneered the risk-based approach for geological site selection, operation and abandonment. The

program has made a major contribution overall to the confidence of CO2 geological storage integrity and has

developed some exciting new monitoring tools. There is now a much deeper understanding of the important role

carbon capture and geological sequestration can play in a carbon-constrained future, particularly in a future that

involves stabilization of the concentrations of CO2 in the earth’s atmosphere.

The industrial participants in the CCP would like to thank all of the people who have worked with us over the past

4 years and who have supported the delivery of our encouraging results. The list is long and includes people from

academia, technology providers, the NGO community, industry and governments. The degree of cooperation, and

hard work by those involved has been gratifying and has helped enormously in finding our way through the many

challenges that lay in our path. The CCP project has succeeded because of extreme hard work from the whole

extended multi-disciplinary team.

I would like to especially acknowledge the US DOE’s National Energy Technology Laboratory, The European

Union’s DGTREN and DGRES programs, and the Norwegian Research Council’s Klimatek program, without

whose support the CO2 Capture Project would not have been possible. Finally, I would like to formally thank the

companies who were the project industrial participants – BP, ChevronTexaco, EnCana, ENI, Hydro, Shell, Statoil

and Suncor – for their proactive engagement and strong leadership of the program. All the participants were

engaged, active, and willing partners working towards the project goals.

The two volumes that you hold in your hand are the result of many thousand hours of effort. It is the Executive

Board’s hope that the technologies described here will form the basis of a vibrant and important industry for the

benefit of mankind.

vi

Acknowledgements

Helen Kerr, BP, p.l.c.

Program Manager, CO2 Capture Project

The CO2 Capture Project results reported here were delivered with the help of an exceptional technical team, who

all deserve a special mention, but in particular I would like to acknowledge with thanks the CCP technical team

leaders past and present: Henrik Andersen (Hydro), Mike Slater (BP), John Boden (BP), Odd Furuseth (Statoil),

Henriette Undrum (Statoil), Robert Moore (BP), Torgeir Melien (Hydro), Ivanno Miracca (Eni), Mario Molinari

(Eni), Craig Lewis (ChevronTexaco), Scott Imbus (ChevronTexaco), Arthur Lee (ChevronTexaco) and Iain

Wright (BP).

The contracting and procurement support staff who handled over 100 contracts were magnificent: Robert Sloat,

John Woods, John Hargrove, Sheetal Handa (BP) & Ole Morten Opheim (Statoil), Donna Douglas (Accenture,

BP), Svein Berg (Statoil) and Stuart Green (Atkins, Faithful & Gould).

The Technology Advisory Board provided timely sage advice and the benefits of their collective experience to help

the project succeed. Special thanks to Chairman Vello Kuuskraa (Advanced Resources International, ARI) for your

outstanding commitment and personal support.

The project could not have happened without the support from our partners in government who co-funded the

program. A special thanks to the project managers, Philip Goldberg and David Hyman (US DOE, NETL), Dennis

O’Brien and Vassilios Kougionas (EU DGTREN & EU DGRES) and Hans-Roar Sorheim (NRC Klimatek).

These volumes were edited by two exceptional people, David Thomas (ARI) and Sally Benson (Lawrence Berkeley

National Laboratory). Thank you for your hard work on behalf of the CCP.

vii

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CONTENTS

Preface v

Acknowledgements vii

VOLUME 1

Introduction 1

David C. Thomas and Helen R. Kerr

Chapter 1: Policies and Incentives Developments in CO2 Capture and Storage Technology:

A Focused Survey by the CO2 Capture Project 17

Arthur Lee, Dag Christensen, Frede Cappelen, Jan Hartog, Alison Thompson,

Geoffrey Johns, Bill Senior, Mark Akhurst

Chapter 2: Review and Evaluation of the CO2 Capture Project by the Technology Advisory Board 37

Vello Kuuskraa

Chapter 3: Economic and Cost Analysis for CO2 Capture Costs in the CO2 Capture Project Scenarios 47

Torgeir Melien

SECTION 1: POST COMBUSTION CO2 SEPARATION TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 4: Post-Combustion CO2 Separation Technology Summary 91

Dag Eimer

Chapter 5: CO2 Removal from Power Plant Flue Gas –Cost Efficient Design and Integration Study 99

Gerald N. Choi, Robert Chu, Bruce Degen, Harvey Wen, Peter L. Richen, Daniel Chinn

Chapter 6: Post-Combustion Separation and Capture Baseline Studies for the CCP Industrial Scenarios 117

Paul Hurst, Graeme Walker

Chapter 7: KPS Membrane Contactor Module Combined with Kansai/MHI Advanced Solvent,

KS-1 for CO2 Separation from Combustion Flue Gases 133

Marianne Søbye Grønvold, Olav Falk-Pedersen, Nobuo Imai, Kazuo Ishida

Chapter 8: Removal of CO2 from Low Pressure Flue Gas Streams using Carbon Fibre Composite

Molecular Sieves and Electric Swing Adsorption 157

Paul Hurst

Chapter 9: Self-Assembled Nanoporous Materials for CO2 Capture

Part 1: Theoretical Considerations 165

Ripudaman Malhotra, David L. Huestis, Marcy Berding, Srinivasan Krishanamurthy,

Abhoyjit Bhown

Part 2: Experimental Studies 177

Ripudaman Malhotra, Albert S. Hirschon, Anne Venturelli, Kenji Seki, Kent S. Knaebel,

Heungsoo Shin, Herb Reinhold

ix

Chapter 10: Creative Chemical Approaches for Carbon Dioxide Removal from Flue Gas 189

Dag Eimer, Merethe Sjøvoll, Nils Eldrup, Richard H. Heyn, Olav Juliussen,

Malcolm McLarney, Ole Swang

SECTION 2: PRE-COMBUSTION DE-CARBONIZATION TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 11: Pre-combustion Decarbonisation Technology Summary 203

Henrik Andersen

Chapter 12: Generation of Hydrogen Fuels for a Thermal Power Plant with Integrated CO2-Capture

Using a CaO–CaCO3 Cycle 213

Julien Meyer, Rolf Jarle Aaberg, Bjørg Andresen

Chapter 13: Development of the Sorption Enhanced Water Gas Shift Process 227

Rodney J. Allam, Robert Chiang, Jeffrey R. Hufton,

Peter Middleton, Edward L. Weist, Vince White

Chapter 14: Coke Gasification: Advanced Technology for Separation and Capture of CO2 from

Gasifier Process Producing Electrical Power, Steam, and Hydrogen 257

Martin Holysh

Chapter 15: Development of a Hydrogen Mixed Conducting Membrane Based CO2 Capture Process 273

Bent Vigeland, Knut Ingvar Aasen

Chapter 16: Hydrogen Transport Membrane Technology for Simultaneous Carbon Dioxide Capture

and Hydrogen Separation in a Membrane Shift Reactor 291

Michael V. Mundschau, Xiaobing Xie, Anthony F. Sammells

Chapter 17: Silica Membranes for Hydrogen Fuel Production by Membrane Water Gas Shift Reaction

and Development of a Mathematical Model for a Membrane Shift Reactor 307

Paul P.A.C. Pex, Yvonne C. van Delft

Chapter 18: Design, Scale Up and Cost Assessment of a Membrane Shift Reactor 321

Ted R. Ohrn, Richard P. Glasser, Keith G. Rackers

Chapter 19: GRACE: Development of Pd–Zeolite Composite Membranes for Hydrogen Production

by Membrane Reactor 341

M. Mene´ndez, M.P. Pina, M.A. Urbiztondo, L. Casado, M. Boutonnet, S. Rojas, S. Nassos

Chapter 20: GRACE: Development of Silica Membranes for Gas Separation at Higher Temperatures 365

Henk Kruidhof, Mieke W.J. Luiten, Nieck E. Benes, Henny J.M. Bouwmeester

Chapter 21: GRACE: Development of Supported Palladium Alloy Membranes 377

Hallgeir Klette, Henrik Raeder, Yngve Larring, Rune Bredesen

Chapter 22: GRACE: Experimental Evaluation of Hydrogen Production by Membrane Reaction 385

Giuseppe Barbieri, Paola Bernardo

Chapter 23: GRACE: Pre-combustion De-carbonisation Hydrogen Membrane Study 409

Peter Middleton, Paul Hurst, Graeme Walker

Chapter 24: An Evaluation of Conversion of Gas Turbines to Hydrogen Fuel 427

Gregory P. Wotzak, Norman Z. Shilling, Girard Simons, Kenneth A. Yackly

x

SECTION 3A: OXYFUEL COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 25: Oxyfuel Combustion for CO2 Capture Technology Summary 441

Ivano Miracca, Knut Ingvar Aasen, Tom Brownscombe, Karl Gerdes, Mark Simmonds

Chapter 26: The Oxyfuel Baseline: Revamping Heaters and Boilers to Oxyfiring

by Cryogenic Air Separation and Flue Gas Recycle 451

Rodney Allam, Vince White, Neil Ivens, Mark Simmonds

Chapter 27: Zero Recycle Oxyfuel Boiler Plant With CO2 Capture 477

Mark Simmonds, Graeme Walker

Chapter 28: Zero or Low Recycle In-Duct Burner Oxyfuel Boiler Feasibility Study 489

Mark Simmonds, Graeme Walker

Chapter 29: A Comparison of the Efficiencies of the Oxy-fuel

Power Cycles Water-Cycle, Graz-Cycle and Matiant-Cycle 499

Olav Bolland, Hanne M. Kvamsdal, John C. Boden

Chapter 30: Revamping Heaters and Boilers to Oxyfiring—Producing Oxygen by ITM Technology 513

Rodney Allam, Vince White, VanEric Stein, Colin McDonald, Neil Ivens, Mark Simmonds

Chapter 31: Techno-economic Evaluation of an Oxyfuel Power

Plant Using Mixed Conducting Membranes 537

Dominikus Bu¨cker, Daniel Holmberg, Timothy Griffin

Chapter 32: Cost and Feasibility Study on the Praxair Advanced Boiler for the CO2 Capture

Project’s Refinery Scenario 561

Leonard Switzer, Lee Rosen, Dave Thompson, John Sirman, Hank Howard, Larry Bool

SECTION 3B: CHEMICAL LOOPING COMBUSTION (CLC) OXYFUEL TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 33: Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) Oxyfuel Technology Summary 583

Paul Hurst, Ivano Miracca

Chapter 34: Development of Oxygen Carriers for Chemical-Looping Combustion 587

Juan Ada´nez, Francisco Garcı´a-Labiano, Luis F. de Diego, Pilar Gaya´n,

Alberto Abad, Javier Celaya

Chapter 35: Chemical-Looping Combustion—Reactor Fluidization

Studies and Scale-up Criteria 605

Bernhard Kronberger, Gerhard Lo¨ffler, Hermann Hofbauer

Chapter 36: Construction and 100 h of Operational Experience

of a 10-kW Chemical-Looping Combustor 625

Anders Lyngfelt, Hilmer Thunman

Chapter 37: Chemical Looping Combustion of Refinery Fuel Gas with CO2 Capture 647

Jean-Xavier Morin, Corinne Be´al

FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS

Chapter 38: Capture and Separation Technology Gaps and Priority Research Needs 655

Helen R. Kerr

xi

VOLUME 2

SECTION 1: GHG, CLIMATE CHANGE AND GEOLOGICAL CO2 STORAGE

CO2 Storage Preface 663

Sally M. Benson

Chapter 1: Overview of Geologic Storage of CO2 665

Sally M. Benson

Chapter 2: Technical Highlights of the CCP Research Program on Geological Storage of CO2 673

S. Imbus

SECTION 2: STORAGE INTEGRITY

Storage Integrity Preface 685

Curtis M. Oldenburg

Chapter 3: Natural CO2 Fields as Analogs for Geologic CO2 Storage 687

Scott H. Stevens

Chapter 4: Natural Leaking CO2-Charged Systems as Analogs for Failed Geologic Storage Reservoirs 699

Zoe K. Shipton, James P. Evans, Ben Dockrill, Jason Heath, Anthony Williams,

David Kirchner, Peter T. Kolesar

Chapter 5: The NGCAS Project—Assessing the Potential for EOR and CO2 Storage

at the Forties Oilfield, Offshore UK 713

S.V. Cawley, M.R. Saunders, Y. Le Gallo, B. Carpentier, S. Holloway, G.A. Kirby,

T. Bennison, L. Wickens, R. Wikramaratna, T. Bidstrup, S.L.B. Arkley,

M.A.E. Browne, J.M. Ketzer

Chapter 6: Predicting and Monitoring Geomechanical Effects of CO2 Injection 751

Ju¨rgen E. Streit, Anthony F. Siggins, Brian J. Evans

Chapter 7: Geophysical and Geochemical Effects of Supercritical CO2 on Sandstones 767

Hartmut Schu¨tt, Marcus Wigand, Erik Spangenberg

Chapter 8: Reactive Transport Modeling of Cap-Rock Integrity During Natural

and Engineered CO2 Storage 787

James W. Johnson, John J. Nitao, Joseph P. Morris

Chapter 9: Natural Gas Storage Industry Experience and Technology: Potential Application

to CO2 Geological Storage 815

Kent F. Perry

Chapter 10: Leakage of CO2 Through Abandoned Wells: Role of Corrosion of Cement 827

George W. Scherer, Michael A. Celia, Jean-Herve´ Pre´vost, Stefan Bachu, Robert Bruant,

Andrew Duguid, Richard Fuller, Sarah E. Gasda, Mileva Radonjic, Wilasa Vichit-Vadakan

SECTION 3: STORAGE OPTIMIZATION

Storage Optimization Preface 851

Jos Maas

xii

Chapter 11: Long-Term CO2 Storage: Using Petroleum Industry Experience 853

Reid B. Grigg

Chapter 12: In situ Characteristics of Acid-Gas Injection Operations

in the Alberta Basin, Western Canada: Demonstration of CO2 Geological Storage 867

Stefan Bachu, Kristine Haug

Chapter 13: Simulating CO2 Storage in Deep Saline Aquifers 877

Ajitabh Kumar, Myeong H. Noh, Gary A. Pope, Kamy Sepehrnoori, Steven L. Bryant,

Larry W. Lake

Chapter 14: CO2 Storage in Coalbeds: CO2/N2 Injection and Outcrop Seepage Modeling 897

Shaochang Wo, Jenn-Tai Liang

Chapter 15: CO2 Conditioning and Transportation 925

Geir Heggum, Torleif Weydahl, Roald Mo, Mona Mølnvik, Anders Austegaard

Chapter 16: Materials Selection for Capture, Compression, Transport and Injection of CO2 937

Marion Seiersten, Kjell Ove Kongshaug

Chapter 17: Impact of SOx and NOx in Flue Gas on CO2 Separation,

Compression, and Pipeline Transmission 955

Bruce Sass, Bruce Monzyk, Stephen Ricci, Abhishek Gupta, Barry Hindin, Neeraj Gupta

Chapter 18: Effect of Impurities on Subsurface CO2 Storage Processes 983

Steven Bryant, Larry W. Lake

SECTION 4: MONITORING AND VERIFICATION

Monitoring and Verification Preface 999

Mike Hoversten

Chapter 19: Monitoring Options for CO2 Storage 1001

Rob Arts, Pascal Winthaegen

Chapter 20: Atmospheric CO2 Monitoring Systems 1015

Patrick Shuler, Yongchun Tang

Chapter 21: Detecting Leaks from Belowground CO2 Reservoirs Using Eddy Covariance 1031

Natasha L. Miles, Kenneth J. Davis, John C. Wyngaard

Chapter 22: Hyperspectral Geobotanical Remote Sensing for CO2 Storage Monitoring 1045

William L. Pickles, Wendy A. Cover

Chapter 23: Non-Seismic Geophysical Approaches to Monitoring 1071

G.M. Hoversten, Erika Gasperikova

Chapter 24: The Use of Noble Gas Isotopes for Monitoring Leakage of Geologically Stored CO2 1113

Gregory J. Nimz, G. Bryant Hudson

SECTION 5: RISK ASSESSMENT

Risk Assessment Preface 1131

Sally M. Benson

xiii

Chapter 25: Lessons Learned from Industrial and Natural Analogs for Health,

Safety and Environmental Risk Assessment for Geologic Storage of Carbon Dioxide 1133

Sally M. Benson

Chapter 26: Human Health and Ecological Effects of Carbon Dioxide Exposure 1143

Robert P. Hepple

Chapter 27: The Regulatory Climate Governing the Disposal of Liquid Wastes

in Deep Geologic Formations: A Paradigm for Regulations for the

Subsurface Storage of CO2? 1173

John A. Apps

Chapter 28: Prospects for Early Detection and Options for Remediation of Leakage

from CO2 Storage Projects 1189

Sally Benson, Robert Hepple

Chapter 29: Modeling of Near-Surface Leakage and Seepage of CO2 for Risk Characterization 1205

Curtis M. Oldenburg, Andre´ A.J. Unger

Chapter 30: Impact of CO2 Injections on Deep Subsurface Microbial Ecosystems and Potential

Ramifications for the Surface Biosphere 1217

T.C. Onstott

Chapter 31: Framework Methodology for Long-Term Assessment of the Fate of CO2 in the

Weyburn Field 1251

Mike Stenhouse, Wei Zhou, Dave Savage, Steve Benbow

Chapter 32: CO2 Storage in Coalbeds: Risk Assessment of CO2 and Methane Leakage 1263

Shaochang Wo, Jenn-Tai Liang, Larry R. Myer

Chapter 33: Risk Assessment Methodology for CO2 Storage: The Scenario Approach 1293

A.F.B. Wildenborg, A.L. Leijnse, E. Kreft, M.N. Nepveu, A.N.M. Obdam, B. Orlic,

E.L. Wipfler, B. van der Grift, W. van Kesteren, I. Gaus,

I. Czernichowski-Lauriol, P. Torfs, R. Wo´jcik

Chapter 34: Key Findings, Technology Gaps and the Path Forward 1317

Scott Imbus, Charles Christopher

Author Index 1323

Subject Index 1325

xiv

INTRODUCTION

David C. Thomas1 and Helen R. Kerr2

1

Advanced Resources International, Inc., Naperville, IL, USA 2

BP, plc., Sunbury-on-Thames, UK

BACKGROUND

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in its 1995 base-case estimate, predicted that

anthropogenic emissions will rise from 7.4 billion tonnes of carbon/year (GtC/yr) in 1997 to approximately

26 GtC/year in 2100. Stated in carbon dioxide units, this equates to 27.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide/year

(GtCO2/yr) in 1997 to over 95 GtCO2/yr by 2100. The IPCC also projects doubling of atmospheric CO2

concentration from the present level of 360 ppmv to about 720 ppmv by 2050. While the effects on global

climate are uncertain, many scientists agree that there could be serious environmental consequences [3].

In 1999, the US DOE completed a series of reviews on research needs for carbon sequestration. That review

defined three approaches to manage carbon entering the atmosphere:

. Use energy more efficiently to reduce combustion of carbon-based fuels.

. Increase use of low carbon emission and carbon-free fuels like nuclear and renewable energy sources

(solar energy, wind power, hydroelectric, and biomass combustion).

. Carbon sequestration to capture and securely store carbon emitted from global energy systems.

The technology roadmap developed by the US DOE identified key scientific needs and challenges to make

carbon sequestration practical [1].

. Separation and capture of CO2 from the energy system. Present processes for separating CO2 from

combustion exhaust (flue) gases are small scale and expensive. Substantial development is required to

make flue-gas separation an acceptable method. Converting the energy carrier from carbon compounds

to hydrogen with separation of CO2 is one approach. Separation of oxygen from air for use in combustion

to produce a high CO2 content flue gas is another feasible approach to capture CO2 without excessive

separation costs.

. Sequestration in geologic formations. CO2 can be stored in competent geologic formations that are

widespread and well understood. Oil and gas fields have been treated with CO2 to enhance production of

hydrocarbons for the past three decades. Modification of those techniques may lead to acceptable options

for CO2 storage. The energy industry has developed a good understanding of the types of geologic

formations that might be able to store significant quantities of CO2 for long periods of time. Deep coal

deposits that are viewed as economically unmineable may also be able to accept substantial amounts of

CO2 for storage. Deep saline aquifers exist widely around the world and are already used for CO2

sequestration purposes in Norway.

. Sequestration in the oceans. Oceans are the largest natural sink for CO2. Research on methods to

accelerate anthropogenic CO2 uptake by oceans is underway. The ideas are embryonic, fraught with

unknown environmental effects, and in need of careful study.

. Sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems. Capture and fixation of CO2 by plants is the main way that CO2 is

naturally removed from the atmosphere. It is estimated that plants already consume about a quarter of the

anthropogenic CO2 emitted annually. Research into accelerating plant uptake of CO2 and ways to make

storage more permanent are needed.

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations, Volume 1

D.C. Thomas and S.M. Benson (Eds.)

q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved 1