Automotive Systems : Principles and Practice

Automotive Systems

Automotive Systems

Principles and Practice

G. K. Awari, V. S. Kumbhar, and R. B. Tirpude

First edition published 2021

by CRC Press

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Awari, G. K. (Engineer), author. | Kumbhar, Vijay S., author. |

Tirpude, Raju B., author.

Title: Automotive systems : principles and practice / G K Awari, Vijay

Kumbhar, and Raju Tirpude.

Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis

Group, LLC, 2021. | Includes index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2020032529 (print) | LCCN 2020032530 (ebook) |

ISBN 9780367498429 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003047636 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Automobiles—Design and construction. |

Automobiles—Equipment and supplies.

Classification: LCC TL240 .A95 2021 (print) | LCC TL240 (ebook) |

DDC 629.2—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020032529

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020032530

ISBN: 978-0-367-49842-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-003-04763-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Times

by codeMantra

The book is dedicated to the late Sau. Shashikala K.

Awari, for her divine blessings and inspiration.

vii

Contents

Preface....................................................................................................................xvii

Acknowledgements.................................................................................................xix

Abbreviations..........................................................................................................xxi

Authors.................................................................................................................xxvii

Chapter 1 Automobile Evaluation and Market Review ........................................1

1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................1

1.2 History and Evolution of Vehicles.............................................1

1.3 Indian Automotive Market ........................................................2

1.4 Global Automotive Market........................................................5

1.5 Automotive Research Perspectives............................................7

1.6 Indian and Global OEMs......................................................... 12

1.7 Indian and Global Auto Components Manufacturers ............. 15

1.7.1 Industry Scenario ....................................................... 15

1.7.2 Global Automotive Components Manufacturers........ 18

Summary ............................................................................................20

Multiple Choice Questions................................................................. 21

Review Questions............................................................................... 21

Chapter 2 Vehicle Classification, Structure and Layouts....................................23

2.1 Introduction .............................................................................23

2.2 Classification of Vehicles.........................................................23

2.3 Constructional Details of Vehicle Chassis and Body..............24

2.4 Basic Terminology and Legislative Requirements of a

Vehicle as per CMVR and MVA.............................................25

2.4.1 Lead Dimensions of a Vehicle....................................25

2.5 Various Systems of the Vehicle and Their Functions..............26

2.6 Various Types of Chassis Frames: Their Construction

and Material.............................................................................29

2.7 Various Loads Acting on the Vehicle Chassis Frame, and

Its Deformation........................................................................30

2.8 Types of Chassis and Vehicle Layouts, Advantages and

Disadvantages.......................................................................... 32

Summary ............................................................................................36

Multiple-Choice Questions ................................................................36

Review Questions...............................................................................37

Chapter 3 Vehicular Engines ..............................................................................39

3.1 Introduction .............................................................................39

3.2 Working Principle and Terminology of the Engine ................39

viii Contents

3.3 Components of the IC Engine and Their

Constructional Details.............................................................40

3.3.1 Piston and Rings.........................................................40

3.3.2 Connecting Rod and Bearings ................................... 41

3.3.3 Crankshaft Assembly and Bearings........................... 41

3.3.4 Cylinder Head and Gasket ......................................... 42

3.3.5 Cylinder Block, Crankcase and Head ........................ 42

3.3.6 Crankshaft Assembly and Main Bearings................. 42

3.3.7 Crankshaft Torsional Vibration Dampers.................. 43

3.3.8 Valve Train ................................................................. 43

3.4 Classification of IC Engines.................................................... 43

3.5 Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engines .....................................44

3.6 Comparison of Engines ..........................................................46

3.7 Selection of Engine as Per Functional Requirement............... 47

3.8 Fuel Supply System for SI Engines: General Layout and

Components ............................................................................49

3.9 Principles of Carburetion and Fuel Injection in SI Engines....49

3.10 Types of Carburettors and Their Constructional Details........50

3.10.1 Multiple and Compound Carburettors ....................... 52

3.10.2 Electronically Controlled Carburettors...................... 52

3.10.3 Fuel Injection System................................................. 52

3.11 Continuous and Timed Injection System................................. 53

3.12 Single-Point TBI and MPFI Systems ..................................... 53

3.13 Fuel Supply System for CI Engine: General Layout and

Components.............................................................................56

3.14 TDI and CRDI System ............................................................ 57

3.15 Types of Fuel Injection Pumps and Their Constructional

Details and Testing of Fuel Pumps.......................................... 58

3.15.1 Distributor Fuel Injection Pump................................. 58

3.15.2 Testing of Fuel Injection Pump .................................. 58

3.16 Fuel Injectors and Nozzles ......................................................59

3.17 Electronically Controlled Unit Fuel Injection System ............60

3.18 Injection Timing and Its Importance.......................................60

3.19 Spray Characteristics ..............................................................60

3.20 Principles of Lubrication Systems........................................... 61

3.21 Friction and Wear Mechanics.................................................. 62

3.22 Lubricants: Their Composition and Properties.......................63

3.23 Wet Sump Lubrication Device ...............................................64

3.24 Dry Sump Lubrication System................................................65

3.25 Mist Lubrication System .........................................................65

3.26 Principles of Cooling System .................................................. 67

3.27 Liquid Cooling System............................................................ 67

3.27.1 Pressurised Water Cooling System ............................68

3.27.2 Components of a Water Cooling system ....................68

3.28 Air Cooling System.................................................................70

3.29 Current Advancements in Cooling Systems............................ 71

Contents ix

3.30 Principles of Air Intake and Exhaust ...................................... 71

3.31 Air Cleaners and Silencers ..................................................... 71

3.32 Intake and Exhaust Manifolds.................................................72

3.32.1 Intake Manifolds........................................................72

3.32.2 Exhaust Manifolds .....................................................72

3.33 Tailpipe Emissions from Vehicular Engines...........................72

3.34 HC, CO, NOx, PM Formation Process....................................72

3.34.1 Formation of Nitrogen Oxides ...................................72

3.34.2 HC Emission...............................................................73

3.35 Methodologies Adopted to Reduce Emission.......................... 74

3.36 Current Advancements in Emission Control and Reduction... 74

3.37 Principles of Turbocharging and Supercharging..................... 74

3.37.1 Naturally Aspirated Engines ..................................... 75

3.37.2 Forced Induction ........................................................ 75

3.38 Types of Superchargers and Their Constructional Details ..... 75

3.39 Types of Turbochargers and Their Constructional Details.....77

3.40 Engine Electronics and Management System .........................77

Summary ............................................................................................79

Multiple-Choice Questions ................................................................79

Review Questions............................................................................... 81

Chapter 4 Automotive Clutches..........................................................................83

4.1 Introduction .............................................................................83

4.2 Necessity and Functions of the Clutch ....................................83

4.3 Working Principle of the Clutch..............................................84

4.4 Classification of Clutches........................................................85

4.5 Requirements of the Clutch.....................................................85

4.6 Torque Transmission Capacity of the Clutch ..........................86

Number of Friction Surfaces...................................................86

Surface Area/Size of the Friction Plate (Which Depends

on the Mean Radius of the Friction Plate)...............................86

Pressure over the Disc .............................................................86

Coefficient of Friction of the Material Used ...........................86

Elements of the Clutch and Their Construction ......................87

4.7 Construction and Working of the Single Plate Clutch.............89

Construction ............................................................................89

Diaphragm Clutch ..................................................................90

4.8 Construction and Working of the Multi-Plate Clutch .............90

4.9 Construction and Working of the Centrifugal Clutch ............. 91

Centrifugally Operated Clutches............................................. 91

4.10 Construction and Working of Electromagnetic Clutch ...........92

4.11 Operating Mechanism of the Clutch .......................................92

Mechanically Operated Clutch Linkage..................................92

Cable-Operated Clutch ............................................................92

4.12 Operating Mechanism of the Clutch: Hydraulic .....................93

x Contents

4.13 Design Aspects of the Automotive Clutch ..............................93

Summary ............................................................................................94

Multiple-Choice Questions ................................................................94

Review Questions...............................................................................94

Chapter 5 Manual Transmission and Transaxles................................................95

5.1 Introduction .............................................................................95

5.2 Various Types of Resistances..................................................95

5.3 Motive Power, Traction and Tractive Efforts ..........................96

5.4 Necessity of the Gear Box.......................................................97

5.5 Calculation of Gear Ratios......................................................98

5.6 Construction and Working of the Constant Mesh Gear Box...99

5.7 Construction and Working of the Sliding Mesh Gear Box ...100

5.8 Construction and Working of the Synchromesh Gear Box... 101

5.9 Overdrive ............................................................................... 103

5.10 Transfer Box Construction and Working............................... 104

5.11 Heavy Vehicle Gear Boxes.................................................... 104

5.11.1 Splitter Drive Gear Boxes ....................................... 105

5.11.2 Range Change Gear Boxes....................................... 105

5.12 Gear Shifting Mechanisms.................................................... 106

5.13 Gear Box Lubrication and Sealing........................................ 107

5.14 Transaxle Construction and Working.................................... 107

Summary ......................................................................................... 108

Multiple-Choice Questions .............................................................. 108

Review Questions............................................................................. 109

Chapter 6 Semiautomatic and Automatic Transmission................................... 111

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 111

6.2 Fluid Flywheel....................................................................... 111

6.2.1 Limitations ............................................................... 114

6.3 Torque Convertor................................................................... 114

6.4 Planetary Gear Box ............................................................... 115

6.5 Continuous Variable Transmission System........................... 116

6.6 Automatic Transmission System for Passenger Cars ............ 117

6.7 Automatic Transaxles............................................................ 118

6.8 Automatic Transmission System for Heavy Vehicles............ 119

6.9 Hydraulic Control System ..................................................... 119

6.10 Electrohydraulic Control System...........................................120

6.11 Automated Manual Transmission System............................. 121

Summary .......................................................................................... 122

Multiple-Choice Questions .............................................................. 123

Review Questions............................................................................. 123

Contents xi

Chapter 7 Propeller Shaft, Differential and Rear Axles...................................125

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 125

7.2 Driveline Arrangements........................................................ 125

7.2.1 Hotchkiss Drive........................................................ 125

7.2.2 Torque Tube Drive....................................................126

7.3 Propeller Shaft.......................................................................126

7.4 Universal Joint....................................................................... 127

7.5 Slip Joint................................................................................ 127

7.6 Constant Velocity Joints........................................................128

7.7 Final Drive Gears and Bearings............................................ 131

7.7.1 Bearings.................................................................... 132

7.8 Differential ............................................................................ 132

7.8.1 Limited Slip Differential.......................................... 133

7.9 Rear Axle Construction......................................................... 134

7.10 Types of Rear Axles.............................................................. 135

7.11 Various Types of Loads Acting on the Rear Axles............... 136

7.12 Tandem Axle Drive for Heavy Vehicles ............................... 136

Summary .......................................................................................... 137

Multiple-Choice Questions .............................................................. 137

Review Questions............................................................................. 138

Chapter 8 Suspension System ........................................................................... 139

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 139

8.2 Basic Ride Considerations of the Vehicle.............................. 140

8.3 Functions of the Suspension System ..................................... 140

8.4 Classification of the Suspension System ............................... 140

8.5 Independent Suspension System............................................ 141

8.6 Dependent Suspension Systems ............................................ 145

8.6.1 Advantages of Axle Beam Suspension..................... 146

8.6.2 Disadvantages of Axle Beam Suspension................ 146

8.7 Air Suspension....................................................................... 146

8.8 Rubber Suspensions .............................................................. 148

8.9 Types of Springs Used in the Suspension System................. 148

8.9.1 Leaf Springs............................................................. 149

8.9.1.1 Benefits of Leaf Springs .......................... 150

8.9.2 Coil Springs.............................................................. 151

8.10 Dampers................................................................................. 152

8.11 Adaptive Suspension System................................................. 154

8.11.1 Soft Mode................................................................. 155

8.11.2 Firm Mode................................................................ 155

Summary .......................................................................................... 156

Multiple-Choice Questions .............................................................. 156

Review Questions............................................................................. 156

xii Contents

Chapter 9 Braking Systems............................................................................... 157

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 157

9.2 Classification of Brakes......................................................... 157

9.3 Drum Brakes and Disc Brakes.............................................. 158

9.3.1 Leading and Trailing................................................ 158

9.3.2 Twin Leading Shoes................................................. 160

9.3.3 Duel Servo................................................................ 160

9.3.4 Advantages of Drum Brakes.................................... 160

9.3.5 Disadvantage of Drum Brakes................................. 162

9.3.6 Disc Brakes .............................................................. 162

9.4 Hydraulic Braking System Construction and Working......... 162

9.5 Air Brakes ............................................................................. 167

9.5.1 System Actuation...................................................... 168

9.6 Antilock Braking Systems..................................................... 169

9.6.1 Wheel Speed Sensors............................................... 169

9.6.2 Operation.................................................................. 170

9.6.2.1 Normal Braking Condition....................... 170

9.6.2.2 Pressure Holding....................................... 170

9.6.2.3 Pressure Reducing .................................... 171

9.6.2.4 Pressure Increasing................................... 171

9.7 Parking Brakes ..................................................................... 171

Summary .......................................................................................... 172

Multiple-Choice Questions .............................................................. 172

Review Questions............................................................................. 173

Chapter 10 Vehicle Body Engineering ............................................................... 175

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 175

10.2 Functions of the Vehicle Body .............................................. 175

10.3 Requirements of the Vehicle Body........................................ 176

10.4 Classification of Vehicle Body .............................................. 176

10.5 Car Body Construction.......................................................... 178

10.5.1 Passenger Vehicles ................................................... 178

10.5.2 Under Body Section ................................................. 179

10.5.3 Body Side Assemblies.............................................. 179

10.5.4 Shroud and Dash Panel Assembly............................ 179

10.5.5 Roof.......................................................................... 180

10.5.6 Back Window Aperture Panel.................................. 180

10.5.7 Rear End Assembly.................................................. 180

10.5.8 Frontend Assembly................................................... 181

10.5.9 Front Wings.............................................................. 181

10.5.10 Front Door Panel Assembly ..................................... 182

10.5.11 Bonnet Panel Assembly ........................................... 183

10.6 Bus Body Construction ......................................................... 184

10.7 Body Mounting...................................................................... 185

10.7.1 U Bolts...................................................................... 186

Contents xiii

10.7.2 Balata Packing.......................................................... 186

10.8 Body Materials...................................................................... 187

10.9 Various Loads Acting on the Vehicle Body and

Their Analysis ....................................................................... 188

10.9.1 Symmetric Vertical Load ......................................... 189

10.9.2 Asymmetric Vertical Load....................................... 189

10.9.3 Longitudinal Loads.................................................. 190

10.9.4 Side Loads................................................................ 190

10.10 Anthropometric and Ergonomic Considerations .................. 190

10.11 Upcoming Trends in Vehicle Body Manufacturing ............. 191

Summary .......................................................................................... 192

Multiple-Choice Questions .............................................................. 193

Review Questions............................................................................. 193

Chapter 11 Front Axle and Steering Systems..................................................... 195

11.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 195

11.2 Functions of the Front Axle .................................................. 195

11.3 Constructional Details of the Front Axle .............................. 196

11.4 Requirements of Steering ...................................................... 196

11.5 Principle of Correct Steering ................................................ 197

11.6 Ackerman’s Steering Gear Mechanism................................. 199

11.7 Steering Linkage Arrangements ........................................... 199

11.8 Axle Beam Suspension Steering System Layout...................200

11.9 Independent Suspension Steering System Layout................. 201

11.10 Steering Gear Boxes.............................................................. 201

11.11 Power-Assisted Steering ........................................................203

11.11.1 Introduction ............................................................203

11.11.2 The Need for Power-Assisted Steering...................203

11.11.3 Hydraulic Power-Assisted Steering........................204

11.11.4 Features of the Power-Assisted Steering System ...204

11.11.5 Hydraulic Power-Assisted Steering Components...204

11.11.6 Speed-Sensitive Hydraulic Power-Assisted

Steering ....................................................................205

11.11.7 Electrohydraulic Power-Assisted Steering .............205

11.11.8 Electrical Power-Assisted Steering ........................205

11.11.9 Electrical Power-Assisted Steering Components...206

11.11.9.1 Electrical Motor.....................................206

11.11.9.2 Actuating System...................................206

11.11.9.3 Steering Input Sensors...........................206

11.11.9.4 Electronic Control Unit ........................207

11.11.9.5 Types of Electrical Power-Assisted

Steering .................................................207

Summary ..........................................................................................207

Multiple-Choice Questions ..............................................................208

Review Questions.............................................................................209

xiv Contents

Chapter 12 Wheels and Tyres............................................................................. 211

12.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 211

12.2 Requirements of the Wheel................................................... 211

12.3 Classification of Wheels........................................................ 212

12.4 Construction of Wired and Pressed Disc Wheels................. 212

12.5 Types of Rims and Their Constructional Details ................. 213

12.5.1 Rim Designs............................................................. 213

12.5.2 Well-Base Rims........................................................ 214

12.5.3 5° Seat-Angle Well-Base Rim.................................. 214

12.5.4 Drop-Centre 15° Taper Rim..................................... 214

12.5.5 Detachable-Rim Wheels .......................................... 214

12.5.6 Semi-Drop-Centre Two-Piece Rim.......................... 215

12.5.7 Wide-Base Two-Piece Rim ...................................... 215

12.5.8 Wide-Base Three-Piece Rim ................................... 215

12.5.9 Divided Flat-Base Rim............................................. 215

12.6 Wheel Alignment and Balancing .......................................... 215

12.6.1 Wheel Alignment ..................................................... 215

12.6.2 Wheel Balancing ...................................................... 216

12.7 Tyre Characteristics............................................................... 217

12.7.1 Tyre........................................................................... 217

12.7.2 Tyre Properties......................................................... 217

12.7.2.1 Non-Skidding............................................ 217

12.7.2.2 Uniform Wear........................................... 217

12.7.2.3 Load-Carrying Capacity........................... 218

12.7.2.4 Cushioning ............................................... 218

12.7.2.5 Tyre Noise ................................................ 218

12.7.2.6 Balance .................................................... 218

12.8 Cornering Properties of the Tyre........................................... 218

12.8.1 Static Load and Standard Wheel Height.................. 218

12.8.2 Contact Patch ........................................................... 218

12.8.3 Cornering Force ...................................................... 219

12.8.4 Slip Angle................................................................. 219

12.8.5 Pneumatic Trail and Self-Aligning Torque ............. 219

12.8.6 Camber Thrust ........................................................ 219

12.9 Requirements of Tyres........................................................... 219

12.10 Classification of Tyres ..........................................................220

12.10.1 Tubed Tyres..............................................................220

12.10.2 Tubeless Tyre............................................................220

12.10.3 Cross Ply Type .........................................................222

12.10.4 Radial Ply Type ........................................................222

12.10.5 Belted Bias Type.......................................................222

12.11 Tyre Construction ..................................................................223

12.12 Tyre Treads ...........................................................................223

12.12.1 Symmetrical Tread Pattern .....................................224

12.12.2 Asymmetrical Tread Pattern ...................................224