An investigation into the effects of students' use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies on students' reading performance at Lac Hong University

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

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AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF STUDENTS’ USE OF

METACOGNITIVE AND COGNITIVE STRATEGIES ON STUDENTS’ READING

PERFORMANCE AT LAC HONG UNIVERSITY

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts (TESOL)



Submitted by Ly Tuan Phu

Supervisor

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Vu

Ho Chi Minh City, September, 2016

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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that this thesis entitled “An investigation into the effects of students’ use of

metacognitive and cognitive strategies on students’ reading performance at Lac Hong

University” is my own work.

Except where reference is made in the text of thesis, this thesis contains no material

published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in in part from a thesis by which I have qualified

for or been awarded another degree or diploma.

No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of

the thesis.

This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other

tertiary institution.

Hochiminh City, 2016

Ly Tuan Phu

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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to start my thesis by thanking all the lecturers at Ho Chi Minh Open

University who have worked hard to help me gather required knowledge for conducting this

thesis.

I am grateful in the first place to Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Vu at Ho Chi Minh University of

Education for constantly guiding me in the right directions to complete this thesis. His profound

and comprehensive knowledge in the field has been such a reliable resource to me. Without his

help, this thesis could not have been finished.

I am grateful to Faculty of English Department of Lac Hong University for their willing

help. I would like to send my special thanks to Ms. Lien, Ms. Nguyen, Ms. Vy, Ms. Ha, and Mr.

Tung for their kind supports.

I would like to write down here my appreciation to the two classes, 14AV111 and

14AV112, for their participations in this thesis, which helps me to reach its completion.

Thanks, as ever, to my family for their kind support in my long journey.

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ABSTRACT

Throughout their relative long history, the positive effects of learning strategies have not

been completely defined. A myriad of research and work was conducted by prominent authors

and researchers to construct a full picture of language learning strategy. There is a consensus

shared by those authors that learning strategies can significantly enhance students’ language

performance and competence. Another key theme is that different kinds of language learning

strategies are likely to yield divergent results on students’ performance. Among those kinds of

strategies, metacognitive and cognitive strategies are highly reported to be the ones that have

great impacts on students’ performance in their second language learning.

Given this important reason, the current study aims to throw more light on this

relationship in order to boost students’ reading performance at Lac Hong University. Designed

under the paradigm of a quasi-experimental research with the participation of an experimental

and a control group, the current study is aimed to detect the effects of students’ use of two kinds

of strategies, namely metacognitive and cognitive strategies on their reading comprehension. The

current study also employed a prominent model, the ACT (Adapter Character of Thought) model

proposed by Anderson, to shed more light students’ strategy acquisition. Findings from the study

highlighted that metacognitive and cognitive strategies incorporated into a strategy training

course could improve students’ reading performance. As for the strategy acquisition, it is

concluded that students need more time and practice so that they can use their new strategies

automatically at the procedural stage. With respect to the effectiveness of the strategy training

course, students generated a positive feedback to the course. In addition, they made

improvements in terms of better reading comprehension, reading speed vocabulary).

Key words: learning strategy, metacognitive and cognitive strategies, ACT, strategy

training course, strategy acquisition, reading performance.

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Table of Contents

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ................................................................................................. i

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................... ii

ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................iii

ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... ix

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Background information ........................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Definitions of variables and terms............................................................................................ 3

1.3.1 Learning strategies........................................................................................................ 3

1.3.2 Metacognitive and cognitive strategies........................................................................ 4

1.3.3 Cognitive theory ........................................................................................................... 5

1.3.4 Anderson’s ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought) Model............................................. 5

1.3.5 CALLA (Cognitive Academic Language Approach) Model ....................................... 5

1.4 Statement of purpose................................................................................................................. 5

1.5 Significance of the study........................................................................................................... 6

1.6 Research questions.................................................................................................................... 7

1.7 Structure of the thesis................................................................................................................ 7

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 8

2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 8

2.2 Reading ..................................................................................................................................... 8

2.2.1 L1 and L2 reading ........................................................................................................ 8

2.2.2 Definitions of reading................................................................................................... 8

2.2.3 The goals of reading ................................................................................................... 10

2.3 Factors of reading comprehension .......................................................................................... 11

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2.4 The ways we read.................................................................................................................... 14

2.5 Reading Processes................................................................................................................... 14

2.5.1 Bottom up and top down process ............................................................................... 14

2.6 Previous literature on features of good L2 readers................................................................. 15

2.7. Language learning strategy instruction and the need of a training course............................. 20

2.8 Metacognitive, cognitive strategies and students’ performance ............................................. 27

2.9 The role of teachers in strategy training course ...................................................................... 30

2.10 Learning strategy .................................................................................................................. 31

2.10.1 Definitions of learning strategy................................................................................ 31

2.10.2 Taxonomies of learning strategies............................................................................ 33

2.11 The intertwined relationship between metacognitive and cognitive strategies .................... 37

2.12 Factors affect the use of learning strategies.......................................................................... 39

2.12.1 Stages of training...................................................................................................... 41

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 42

3.2 Methods for answering research question............................................................................... 42

3.2.1 Quasi- experimental research ..................................................................................... 43

3.3 Data collection ........................................................................................................................ 43

3.3.1 Participants................................................................................................................. 43

3.3.2 The strategy training procedure.................................................................................. 45

3.3.3 Research site............................................................................................................... 46

3.3.4 Sources of data ........................................................................................................... 46

3.3.5. Data Analysis............................................................................................................. 50

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 52

4.2. Analysis of students’ test scores............................................................................................ 52

4.2.1 Stage 1: before the treatment...................................................................................... 52

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4.2.2 Stage 2: after the treatment......................................................................................... 54

4.3. Analysis of students’ questionnaires...................................................................................... 56

4.3.1 The reliability of students’ questionnaires ................................................................. 56

4.3.3 Findings from students’ questionnaires...................................................................... 73

4.4 Data from interview ................................................................................................................ 74

4.5 Discussions of the findings...................................................................................................... 83

4.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 83

4.5.2 Students’ improvements in reading comprehension................................................... 83

4.5.3 Students’ process of strategy acquisition ................................................................... 84

4.5.4 Students’ attitudes towards the strategy training course ............................................ 84

4.5.5 Summary..................................................................................................................... 85

CHAPTER 5 SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................... 86

5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 86

5.2 Suggestions............................................................................................................................. 86

5.3 Limitations.............................................................................................................................. 88

5.4 Recommendations for further study........................................................................................ 88

5.5 Summary................................................................................................................................. 89

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 90

APPENDICE................................................................................................................................. 98

APPENDIX 1: Pretests for two groups......................................................................................... 98

APPENDIX 2: Posttests for two groups..................................................................................... 107

APPENDIX 3: Strategy Training Course ................................................................................... 116

APPENDIX 4: Questionnaire (English version)......................................................................... 121

APPENDIX 5: Questionnaire (Vietnamese version).................................................................. 124

APPENDIX 6: Questions for interviews (Vietnamese version)................................................. 127

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APPENDIX 7: Questions for interviews (English version)........................................................ 128

APPENDIX 8: Item- Total Statistics.......................................................................................... 129

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: The means of pretest score of control and experimental group................................... 53

Table 4.2: The non-parametric t-test of pretest scores................................................................. 53

Table 4.3 : Description of the posttest scores............................................................................... 54

Table 4.4: The non-parametric t-test of the posttest scores.......................................................... 55

Table 4.5: The non-parametric dependent sample t-test of the experimental group .................... 55

Table 4.6: The non-parametric dependent sample t-test of the experimental group .................... 56

Table 4.7 : Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Comprehending strategies...................................... 57

Table 4.8: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Memory strategies................................................... 57

Table 4.9: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Retrieval strategies.................................................. 57

Table 4.10: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Planning strategies................................................ 58

Table 4.11: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Monitoring strategies............................................ 58

Table 4.12: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Evaluating strategies............................................. 58

Table 4.13: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for the questionnaire ................................................... 59

Table 4.14: Result of Comprehending strategy from students’ questionnaires............................ 61

Table 4.15: Result of Memory strategy from students’ questionnaires........................................ 63

Table 4.16: Result of Retrieval strategy from students’ questionnaires....................................... 65

Table 4.17: Result of Planning strategy from students’ questionnaires........................................ 68

Table 4.18: Result of Monitoring strategy from students’ questionnaires.................................... 70

Table 4.19: Result of Evaluating strategy from students’ questionnaires .................................... 72

Table 4.20: Results of the semi-structure interviews.................................................................... 77

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ABBREVIATIONS

L1: mother tongue

L2: second language

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

TOEIC: Test of English for International Communication

CALLA: Cognitive Academic Language Approach

ACT: Adaptive Control of Thought

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the background information of the current study. Definitions of

variables and terms are also provided. A brief review of the history of learning strategies is

presented. The purposes and significance of the study are also found in this chapter. The main

research question and its sub-questions are proposed in this chapter.

1.2 Background information

During their history, learning strategies have been proved to possess a significant

relationship with second language learning. Findings from a bulk of research in the field

conducted so far highlighted that the use of learning strategies is closely related to higher

performance thanks to the effectiveness of those strategies in the four skills; listening, speaking,

reading, and writing, and language areas, vocabulary and pronunciation. The research implied

that students who employ learning strategies at a higher frequency are likely to gain higher

performance in their second language learning. Thus, it can be tentatively inferred that the high

frequency of strategies used by students correlates with students’ performance. In addition to the

studies of the frequency of strategies used in language classrooms, a number of researchers have

investigated the ways “good language learners” successfully employed learning strategies in

order to shed more light on the positive effects of learning strategies and draw out “good

lessons” to help low performers in second language learning (Flavell, 1979; Griffiths, 2008).

Among those lessons, strategy use can be considered as one of the prominent lessons.

Throughout their long history and development, learning strategies have been defined, redefined,

and further expanded by a large number of prominent researchers and experts in the field. They

have made great attempts to build up concrete classifications and taxonomies of learning

strategy. In fact, the scientific classifications of learning strategies have been established by

experts in the field (Rubin, 1975; Oxford, 1990; Ellis, 1999; Chamot, 2005). Metacognitive and

cognitive strategies are found in those researchers’ published books and articles. Investigations

into the effects of metacognitive and cognitive strategies on students’ reading performance have

been carried out by prominent researchers in this theme. Findings from the research concur with

the research into the effects of learning strategies on second language learning. In conclusion,

researchers and experts in the field share the consensus on the positive effects of learning

strategies on second language learning performance. In a similar vein, the relationship between

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the use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies and second language reading performance is

likely to be significant. However, previous studies tend to dissect metacognitive from cognitive

strategies and vice versa. In contrast, a number of researchers claim that the relationship between

metacognitive and cognitive strategies is not a clear cut. Indeed, the relationship between

metacognitive and cognitive strategy is “complex” and the two types of strategies can be viewed

as “two interactive facets of the same mental process” (Phakiti, 2003, pp. 47 - 48). In addition to

the complex relationship between metacognitive and cognitive strategies, the process of how

students can transmit the metacognitive and cognitive strategies to a state that they can use those

strategies automatically is somehow neglected in those studies. It could be explained by the fact

that carrying out such studies requires great amount of time as well as advanced analysis.

Besides, a comprehensive theory is also needed to illuminate students’ process of strategy

acquisition. Cognitive theory represented via a comprehensive model will shed light on this

issue. In addition, a study integrated with a combination of different instruments to collect both

quantitative and qualitative data is needed to throw more light the issue mentioned above.

The brief introduction of strategy confirms one thing that there is still space for further

research into learning strategies. More and more efforts are needed to clear the fuzziness which

is clouding learning strategies. With respect to the Vietnamese contexts, the investigation into

the relationship of learning strategies with second language learning has been scattered. There

has not been much research conducted to investigate the effects of metacognitive and cognitive

strategies on reading and university level Vietnam. As for the students who study English major

at Lac Hong University, they need to take an exam included two subjects, namely reading and

writing in order to graduate. The reading test takes students 90 minutes to finish while the essay

writing test is much longer, 180 minutes. In addition, they need to have a certificate of TOEIC

(Test of English for International Communication) test with the minimum score of 700 as a

compulsory condition for their graduation. The TOEIC test that students at Lac Hong University

need to take is the kind with two subjects, namely reading and writing. From the conditions to

graduate mentioned above, it can be seen that reading accounts for a half in such conditions. And

the majority of the students are well aware of the significance of reading. Therefore, reading is

seen as a vital subject. In a smaller scope, reading skills and strategies hence do play an

important part to help students gain high score in the test.

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Since passing the exams to in order to graduate from university is vital to students,

students need to outperform in both the reading and writing exams. To do that, they need good

skills for the two subjects. The current study focuses on one main part of the exam, the reading

test. The thesis here attempts to equip students with appropriate factors to help them boost their

reading skill so as to achieve the highest performance in reading in general and in reading tests in

particular. One of the main factors is the use learning strategies integrated in the reading course

to boost students’ reading performance. The thesis is also expected to throw more light on

students’ strategy acquisition and use so that further study can dig deeper in this issue.

1.3 Definitions of variables and terms

1.3.1 Learning strategies

Throughout history, the definitions of learning strategies have been defined, improvised

and expanded by a number of experts in the field. A number of definitions of learning strategies

came out from different viewpoints towards them. With respect to the roles of learning strategies,

they can act as mediators linking learners’ individual factors to what they achieve in learning

(Ellis, 1999). Hence, it can be implied that learning strategies play a vital role in language

learning by pushing students to achieve their aims in learning. However, learning strategies are

not easy to define and still “fuzzy” (Ellis, 1999, p. 529). Ellis (1999) grouped learning strategies

into two types: language learning strategies and skill learning strategies. Language learning

strategies “are concerned with the learners’ attempt to master new linguistic and sociolinguistic

information about the target language” while skill learning strategies “are concerned with the

learners’ attempt to become skilled listeners, speakers, readers, or writers” (Tarone, 1980, as

cited in Ellis, 1999, p. 530) Thus, conclusion can be drawn that language learning strategies are

related to language areas while skill learning strategies are concerned with the four main skills in

second language learning.

Meanwhile, based on the aims of them, Oxford (1990) claimed that “learning strategies

are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning” (p. 1) and the author defined learning

strategies as “specific actions taken by learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable,

more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (p.8). In this way,

learning strategies are more concrete as they are defined as the “steps” or “actions” that learners

take so smooth their language learning.

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Meanwhile, Chamot (2004) suggests that learning strategies are “the thoughts” and

“actions” by which learners employ to achieve their goals in learning. Cohen (2003) defined

language learning strategies as “conscious thoughts and behaviors” (p. 1) that learners use to

enhance their learning.

Though the definitions and classifications of learning strategies mentioned above hold the

same viewpoint that students intentionally and purposefully use learning strategies to achieve

their goals in second language learning.

1.3.2 Metacognitive and cognitive strategies

Metacognitive and cognitive strategies can be found in prominent writers’ and

researchers‘ taxonomies of language learning strategies.

Rubin (1987, as cited in Hismanoglu, 2000) classified language learning strategies into

three groups; learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies. Learning

strategies in Rubin’s taxonomy consist of metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies

(Hismanoglu, 2000). Cognitive learning strategies “refer to the steps or operations used in

learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning

materials” while metacognitive learning strategies “ are used to oversee, regulate, or self-direct

language learning” (Hismanoglu, 2000, pp. 2- 3)

Metacognitive and cognitive strategies are mentioned in Oxford (1990)’s model of six

groups of strategies; metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, memory strategies,

compensation strategies, social strategies, and affective strategies (p. 16). Oxford (1990) pointed

out “a common function” of cognitive strategies, i.e. “manipulating or transformation of the

target language by the learner” (p. 46). With respect to metacognitive strategies, Oxford (1990)

highlighted the relationship between metacognitive and cognitive strategies as:

“Metacognitive strategies mean beyond, beside, or with the cognitive. Therefore,

metacognitive strategies are actions which go beyond purely cognitive devices, and which

provide a way for learners to coordinate their own learning process”

(p. 137)

Recently, White (2008) redefined cognitive strategies as “activities which learners use to

remember and develop language and to facilitate comprehension” and metacognitive strategies

as “activities which learners use to organize, monitor and evaluate how well they are

understanding.” (p. 213)