Western Civilization: A Brief History

Jackson J. Spielvogel

Th e Pennsylvania State University

S E V E N T H E D I T I O N

WESTERN CIVILIZATION:

A BRIEF HISTORY

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Western Civilization: A Brief History,

Seventh Edition

Jackson J. Spielvogel

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

JACKSON J. SPIELVOGEL is associate professor emeritus of history at Th e

Pennsylvania State University. He received his Ph.D. from Th e Ohio State University, where he

specialized in Reformation history under Harold J. Grimm. His articles and reviews have ap￾peared in such journals as Moreana, Journal of General Education, Catholic Historical Review,

Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte, and American Historical Review. He has also contributed

chapters or articles to Th e Social History of the Reformation, Th e Holy Roman Empire: A

Dictionary Handbook, the Simon Wiesenthal Center Annual of Holocaust Studies, and Utopian

Studies. His work has been supported by fellowships from the Fulbright Foundation and

the Foundation for Reformation Research. At Penn State, he helped inaugurate the Western

civilization courses as well as a popular course on Nazi Germany. His book Hitler and Nazi

Germany was published in 1987 (fi ft h edition, 2005). He is the author of Western Civilization,

fi rst published in 1991 (seventh edition, 2009), and the coauthor (with William Duiker) of

World History, fi rst published in 1994 (sixth edition, 2010). Professor Spielvogel has won fi ve

major universitywide teaching awards. During the year 1988–1989, he held the Penn State

Teaching Fellowship, the university’s most prestigious teaching award. In 1996, he won the

Dean Arthur Ray Warnock Award for Outstanding Faculty Member, and in 2000, he received

the Schreyer Honors College Excellence in Teaching Award.

TO DIANE,

WHOSE LOVE AND SUPPORT MADE IT ALL POSSIBLE

J.J.S.

BRIEF CONTENTS

DOCUMENTS xv

MAPS xviii

CHRONOLOGIES xx

FEATURES xxi

PREFACE xxii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxvi

INTRODUCTION TO STUDENTS OF WESTERN

CIVILIZATION xxix

STUDYING FROM PRIMARY SOURCE

MATERIALS xxxi

1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST

CIVILIZATIONS 1

2 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: PEOPLES

AND EMPIRES 25

3 THE CIVILIZATION OF THE GREEKS 44

4 THE HELLENISTIC WORLD 66

5 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 85

6 THE ROMAN EMPIRE 108

7 LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE EMERGENCE

OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD 130

8 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION IN THE EARLY MIDDLE

AGES, 750–1000 154

9 THE RECOVERY AND GROWTH OF EUROPEAN

SOCIETY IN THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES 175

10 THE RISE OF KINGDOMS AND THE GROWTH

OF CHURCH POWER 195

11 THE LATER MIDDLE AGES: CRISIS AND

DISINTEGRATION IN THE FOURTEENTH

CENTURY 220

12 RECOVERY AND REBIRTH:

THE RENAISSANCE 242

13 REFORMATION AND RELIGIOUS WARFARE

IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 267

14 EUROPE AND THE WORLD: NEW ENCOUNTERS,

1500–1800 290

15 STATE BUILDING AND THE SEARCH FOR ORDER

IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 315

16 TOWARD A NEW HEAVEN AND A NEW EARTH:

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND THE

EMERGENCE OF MODERN SCIENCE 340

17 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: AN AGE

OF ENLIGHTENMENT 358

18 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: EUROPEAN

STATES, INTERNATIONAL WARS, AND SOCIAL

CHANGE 377

19 A REVOLUTION IN POLITICS: THE ERA OF THE

FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON 398

20 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND ITS IMPACT

ON EUROPEAN SOCIETY 421

21 REACTION, REVOLUTION, AND ROMANTICISM,

1815–1850 442

22 AN AGE OF NATIONALISM AND REALISM,

1850–1871 463

23 MASS SOCIETY IN AN “AGE OF PROGRESS,”

1871–1894 484

24 AN AGE OF MODERNITY, ANXIETY, AND

IMPERIALISM, 1894–1914 507

25 THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH-CENTURY

CRISIS: WAR AND REVOLUTION 533

26 THE FUTILE SEARCH FOR STABILITY: EUROPE

BETWEEN THE WARS, 1919–1939 558

27 THE DEEPENING EUROPEAN CRISIS:

WORLD WAR II 582

28 COLD WAR AND A NEW WESTERN WORLD,

1945–1965 607

29 PROTEST AND STAGNATION: THE WESTERN

WORLD, 1965–1985 631

30 AFTER THE FALL: THE WESTERN WORLD

IN A GLOBAL AGE (SINCE 1985) 651

GLOSSARY 677

PRONUNCIATION GUIDE 684

CHAPTER NOTES 693

INDEX 702

iv

DOCUMENTS xv

MAPS xviii

CHRONOLOGIES xx

FEATURES xxi

PREFACE xxii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxvi

INTRODUCTION TO STUDENTS OF WESTERN

CIVILIZATION xxix

STUDYING FROM PRIMARY SOURCE

MATERIALS xxxi

1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST:

THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS 1

Th e First Humans 2

Th e Hunter-Gatherers of the Old Stone Age 2

Th e Neolithic Revolution (c. 10,000–4000 b.c.) 3

Th e Emergence of Civilization 5

Civilization in Mesopotamia 6

Th e City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia 7

Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia 9

Th e Culture of Mesopotamia 11

Egyptian Civilization: “Th e Gift of the Nile” 13

Th e Impact of Geography 14

Th e Old and Middle Kingdoms 15

Society and Economy in Ancient Egypt 16

Th e Culture of Egypt 17

Disorder and a New Order: Th e New Kingdom 19

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

The Egyptian Diet 20

Daily Life in Ancient Egypt: Family and Marriage 21

Conclusion 22

Suggestions for Further Reading 23

Discovery 24

2 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST:

PEOPLES AND EMPIRES 25

On the Fringes of Civilization 26

Th e Impact of the Indo-Europeans 26

Th e Hebrews: “Th e Children of Israel” 27

Th e United Kingdom 27

Th e Divided Kingdom 28

Th e Spiritual Dimensions of Israel 29

Th e Neighbors of the Israelites 32

Th e Assyrian Empire 33

Organization of the Empire 33

Th e Assyrian Military Machine 33

Assyrian Society and Culture 35

Th e Persian Empire 36

Cyrus the Great (559–530 b.c.) 36

Expanding the Empire 37

Governing the Empire 38

Th e Great King 38

Persian Religion 40

Conclusion 40

Suggestions for Further Reading 41

Discovery 43

3 THE CIVILIZATION OF THE

GREEKS 44

Early Greece 45

Minoan Crete 45

Th e First Greek State: Mycenae 46

Th e Greeks in a Dark Age (c. 1100–c. 750 b.c.) 47

Homer and Homeric Greece 47

Homer’s Enduring Importance 48

Th e World of the Greek City-States (c. 750–c. 500 b.c.) 49

Th e Polis 49

A New Military System: Th e Greek Way of War 49

Colonization and the Growth of Trade 50

Tyranny in the Greek Polis 51

Sparta 51

Athens 52

Th e High Point of Greek Civilization:

Classical Greece 53

Th e Challenge of Persia 53

Th e Growth of an Athenian Empire in the Age of Pericles 54

Th e Great Peloponnesian War 55

Th e Decline of the Greek States (404–338 b.c.) 56

DETAILED CONTENTS

v

vi DETAILED CONTENTS

Th e Culture and Society of Classical Greece 56

Th e Writing of History 56

Greek Drama 57

Th e Arts: Th e Classical Ideal 57

Th e Greek Love of Wisdom 58

Greek Religion 60

Daily Life in Classical Athens 61

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

Women in Athens and Sparta 62

Conclusion 63

Suggestions for Further Reading 64

Discovery 65

4 THE HELLENISTIC WORLD 66

Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander 67

Philip and the Conquest of Greece 67

Alexander the Great 67

FILM & HISTORY

Alexander (2004) 71

Th e World of the Hellenistic Kingdoms 72

Hellenistic Monarchies 72

Th e Th reat from the Celts 73

Political Institutions 73

Hellenistic Cities 74

Economic Trends in the Hellenistic World 74

New Opportunities for Women 75

Culture in the Hellenistic World 77

New Directions in Literature 77

Hellenistic Art 77

A Golden Age of Science 78

Philosophy: New Schools of Th ought 79

Religion in the Hellenistic World 80

Mystery Religions 80

Jews in the Hellenistic World 81

Conclusion 81

Suggestions for Further Reading 82

Discovery 84

5 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 85

Th e Emergence of Rome 86

Th e Greeks in Italy 86

Th e Etruscans 87

Early Rome 87

Th e Roman Republic (c. 509–264 b.c.) 88

Th e Roman State 88

Th e Roman Conquest of Italy 89

Th e Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean

(264–133 b.c.) 90

Th e Struggle with Carthage 91

Th e Eastern Mediterranean 93

Th e Nature of Roman Imperialism 93

Evolution of the Roman Army 93

Society and Culture in the Roman World 94

Roman Religion 94

Th e Growth of Slavery 95

FILM & HISTORY

Spartacus (1960) 96

Th e Roman Family 97

Th e Evolution of Roman Law 98

Th e Development of Literature 98

Roman Art 100

Values and Attitudes 100

Th e Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic

(133–31 b.c.) 100

Social, Economic, and Political Problems 101

Th e Reforms of the Gracchi 101

A New Role for the Roman Army: Marius and Sulla 101

Th e Collapse of the Republic 102

Conclusion 105

Suggestions for Further Reading 106

Discovery 107

6 THE ROMAN EMPIRE 108

Th e Age of Augustus (31 b.c.–a.d. 14) 109

Th e New Order 109

Augustan Society 111

Th e Augustan Age 111

Th e Early Empire (14–180) 111

Th e Julio-Claudians 111

Th e Five “Good Emperors” (96–180) 112

Th e Roman Empire at Its Height: Frontiers and

Provinces 112

Prosperity in the Early Empire 114

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

Trade and the Products of Trade 116

Roman Culture and Society in the Early Empire 118

Th e Golden Age of Latin Literature 118

Th e Silver Age of Latin Literature 118

Th e Upper-Class Roman Family 120

Imperial Rome 120

Th e Gladiatorial Shows 121

Transformation of the Roman World:

Crises in the Th ird Century 122

Political and Military Woes 122

Economic and Social Crises 123

Detailed Contents vii

Transformation of the Roman World:

Th e Rise of Christianity 123

Th e Religious World of the Roman Empire 123

Th e Jewish Background 123

Th e Origins of Christianity 124

Th e Growth of Christianity 125

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

Roman Authorities and a Christian

on Christianity 126

Conclusion 128

Suggestions for Further Reading 128

Discovery 129

7 LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE

EMERGENCE OF THE MEDIEVAL

WORLD 130

Th e Late Roman Empire 131

Th e Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine 131

Th e Empire’s New Religion 132

Th e End of the Western Empire 133

Th e Germanic Kingdoms 134

Th e Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy 134

Th e Visigothic Kingdom of Spain 135

Th e Frankish Kingdom 135

Anglo-Saxon England 136

Th e Society of the Germanic Kingdoms 136

Development of the Christian Church 138

Th e Power of the Pope 138

Th e Monks and Th eir Missions 138

Christianity and Intellectual Life 142

Th e Byzantine Empire 143

Th e Reign of Justinian (527–565) 143

From Eastern Roman to Byzantine Empire 145

Th e Rise of Islam 147

Muhammad 147

Th e Teachings of Islam 147

Th e Spread of Islam 149

Conclusion 150

Suggestions for Further Reading 151

Discovery 153

8 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION

IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES,

750–1000 154

Th e World of the Carolingians 155

Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire

(768–814) 155

Th e Carolingian Intellectual Renewal 158

Life in the Carolingian World 158

Disintegration of the Carolingian Empire 161

Invasions of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries 161

Th e Emerging World of Lords and Vassals 163

Vassalage 164

Fief-Holding 164

Th e Manorial System 165

Th e Zenith of Byzantine Civilization 166

Th e Macedonian Dynasty 166

Th e Slavic Peoples of Central and Eastern Europe 168

Western Slavs 168

Southern Slavs 168

Eastern Slavs 169

Th e World of Islam 170

Islamic Civilization 171

Conclusion 173

Suggestions for Further Reading 173

Discovery 174

9 THE RECOVERY AND GROWTH

OF EUROPEAN SOCIETY IN THE

HIGH MIDDLE AGES 175

Land and People in the High Middle Ages 176

Th e New Agriculture 176

Life of the Peasantry 178

Th e Aristocracy of the High Middle Ages 179

Th e New World of Trade and Cities 181

Th e Revival of Trade 181

Th e Growth of Cities 182

Life in the Medieval City 184

Industry in Medieval Cities 184

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

Life in a Medieval Town 185

Th e Intellectual and Artistic World of the High

Middle Ages 186

Th e Rise of Universities 186

A Revival of Classical Antiquity 187

Th e Revival of Roman Law 189

Th e Development of Scholasticism 189

Literature in the High Middle Ages 189

Romanesque Architecture: “A White Mantle of

Churches” 190

Th e Gothic Cathedral 191

Conclusion 192

Suggestions for Further Reading 193

Discovery 194

viii DETAILED CONTENTS

10 THE RISE OF KINGDOMS AND

THE GROWTH OF CHURCH

POWER 195

Th e Emergence and Growth of European Kingdoms,

1000–1300 196

England in the High Middle Ages 196

Th e Growth of the French Kingdom 197

FILM & HISTORY

The Lion in Winter (1968) 198

Christian Reconquest: Th e Spanish Kingdoms 200

Th e Lands of the Holy Roman Empire:

Germany and Italy 201

New Kingdoms in Northern and Eastern Europe 203

Impact of the Mongol Empire 204

Th e Development of Russia 204

Th e Recovery and Reform of the

Catholic Church 205

Th e Problems of Decline 205

Th e Cluniac Reform Movement 205

Reform of the Papacy 205

Christianity and Medieval Civilization 206

Growth of the Papal Monarchy 206

New Religious Orders and Spiritual Ideals 207

Popular Religion in the High Middle Ages 209

Voices of Protest and Intolerance 209

Th e Crusades 211

Background to the Crusades 212

Th e Early Crusades 212

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

The Siege of Jerusalem: Christian and Muslim

Perspectives 214

Th e Crusades of the Th irteenth Century 215

Eff ects of the Crusades 216

Conclusion 216

Suggestions for Further Reading 217

Discovery 219

11 THE LATER MIDDLE AGES:

CRISIS AND DISINTEGRATION

IN THE FOURTEENTH

CENTURY 220

A Time of Troubles: Black Death and

Social Crisis 221

Th e Black Death 221

Economic Dislocation and Social Upheaval 224

War and Political Instability 226

Th e Hundred Years’ War 226

Political Instability 228

FILM & HISTORY

Joan of Arc (1948), The Messenger:

The Story of Joan of Arc (1999) 229

Western Europe: England and France 230

Th e German Monarchy 231

Th e States of Italy 231

Th e Decline of the Church 232

Boniface VIII and the Confl ict with the State 232

Th e Papacy at Avignon (1305–1378) 234

Th e Great Schism 234

Th e Conciliar Movement 234

Culture and Society in an Age of Adversity 235

Th e Development of Vernacular Literature 235

Art and the Black Death 236

Changes in Urban Life 237

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

Entertainment in the Middle Ages 238

Inventions and New Patterns 239

Conclusion 240

Suggestions for Further Reading 240

Discovery 241

12 RECOVERY AND REBIRTH: THE

RENAISSANCE 242

Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance 243

Th e Making of Renaissance Society 243

Economic Recovery 243

Social Changes in the Renaissance 245

Family and Marriage in Renaissance Italy 246

Th e Italian States in the Renaissance 248

Machiavelli and the New Statecraft 249

Th e Intellectual Renaissance in Italy 250

Italian Renaissance Humanism 250

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

The Renaissance Prince: The Views

of Machiavelli and Erasmus 251

Education in the Renaissance 252

Th e Impact of Printing 252

Th e Artistic Renaissance 254

Early Renaissance Art 254

Th e Artistic High Renaissance 255

Th e Northern Artistic Renaissance 256

Th e European State in the Renaissance 258

Th e Renaissance State in Western Europe 259

Central Europe: Th e Holy Roman Empire 260

Th e Struggle for Strong Monarchy in Eastern Europe 261

Th e Ottoman Turks and the End of the Byzantine Empire 261

Th e Church in the Renaissance 262

Th e Problems of Heresy and Reform 262

Detailed Contents ix

Th e Renaissance Papacy 262

Conclusion 263

Suggestions for Further Reading 264

Discovery 266

13 REFORMATION AND RELIGIOUS

WARFARE IN THE SIXTEENTH

CENTURY 267

Prelude to Reformation 268

Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism 268

Church and Religion on the Eve of the Reformation 269

Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany 269

Th e Early Luther 270

Th e Rise of Lutheranism 271

Organizing the Church 272

Germany and the Reformation: Religion and Politics 273

Th e Spread of the Protestant Reformation 275

Th e Zwinglian Reformation 275

Th e Radical Reformation: Th e Anabaptists 275

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

A Reformation Debate: Conflict at

Marburg 276

Th e Reformation in England 277

John Calvin and the Development of Calvinism 278

Th e Social Impact of the Protestant Reformation 279

Th e Family 279

Religious Practices and Popular Culture 279

Th e Catholic Reformation 280

Th e Society of Jesus 280

A Revived Papacy 282

Th e Council of Trent 282

Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth

Century 283

Th e French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) 283

Philip II and Militant Catholicism 283

Revolt of the Netherlands 284

Th e England of Elizabeth 284

FILM & HISTORY

Elizabeth (1998) 286

Conclusion 287

Suggestions for Further Reading 288

Discovery 289

14 EUROPE AND THE WORLD: NEW

ENCOUNTERS, 1500–1800 290

On the Brink of a New World 291

Th e Motives for Expansion 291

Th e Means for Expansion 292

New Horizons: Th e Portuguese and Spanish

Empires 292

Th e Development of a Portuguese Maritime

Empire 292

Voyages to the New World 294

Th e Spanish Empire in the New World 295

New Rivals on the World Stage 298

Africa: Th e Slave Trade 298

Th e West in Southeast Asia 300

Th e French and British in India 302

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

West Meets East: An Exchange of Royal

Letters 303

China 304

Japan 304

Th e Americas 305

Th e Impact of European Expansion 306

Th e Conquered 306

Th e Conquerors 308

FILM & HISTORY

The Mission (1986) 309

Toward a World Economy 310

Economic Conditions in the Sixteenth Century 310

Th e Growth of Commercial Capitalism 311

Mercantilism 311

Overseas Trade and Colonies: Movement Toward

Globalization 311

Conclusion 312

Suggestions for Further Reading 313

Discovery 314

15 STATE BUILDING AND THE

SEARCH FOR ORDER IN THE

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 315

Social Crises, War, and Rebellions 316

Th e Witchcraft Hysteria 316

Th e Th irty Years’ War 318

Rebellions 318

Th e Practice of Absolutism: Western Europe 319

France: Foundations of Absolutism 320

Th e Reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715) 320

Th e Decline of Spain 322

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe 323

Th e German States 323

Th e Emergence of Austria 323

Russia: From Fledgling Principality to

Major Power 324

Th e Ottoman Empire 327

Th e Limits of Absolutism 327

x DETAILED CONTENTS

Limited Monarchy: Th e Dutch Republic and

England 328

Th e Golden Age of the Dutch Republic 328

England and the Emergence of Constitutional

Monarchy 328

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

Dutch Domesticity 329

Th e Flourishing of European Culture 333

Th e Changing Faces of Art 333

A Wondrous Age of Th eater 334

Conclusion 336

Suggestions for Further Reading 337

Discovery 339

16 TOWARD A NEW HEAVEN

AND A NEW EARTH: THE

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND

THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN

SCIENCE 340

Background to the Scientifi c Revolution 341

Ancient Authors and Renaissance Artists 341

Technological Innovations and Mathematics 341

Renaissance Magic 342

Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in

Astronomy 342

Copernicus 343

Kepler 343

Galileo 344

Newton 345

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

A New Heaven? Faith versus Reason 346

Advances in Medicine and Chemistry 347

Vesalius 347

Harvey 347

Chemistry 348

Women in the Origins of Modern Science 348

Margaret Cavendish 348

Maria Winkelmann 349

Debates on the Nature of Women 349

Toward a New Earth: Descartes, Rationalism, and a

New View of Humankind 350

Th e Spread of Scientifi c Knowledge 351

Th e Scientifi c Method 351

Th e Scientifi c Societies 352

Science and Society 353

Science and Religion 353

Conclusion 354

Suggestions for Further Reading 355

Discovery 357

17 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: AN

AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT 358

Th e Enlightenment 359

Th e Paths to Enlightenment 359

Th e Philosophes and Th eir Ideas 361

Th e Social Environment of the Philosophes 366

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

Women in the Age of the Enlightenment:

Rousseau and Wollstonecraft 367

Culture and Society in the Enlightenment 368

Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature 368

Th e High Culture of the Eighteenth Century 370

Popular Culture 370

Crime and Punishment 371

Religion and the Churches 372

Th e Institutional Church 372

Toleration and Religious Minorities 372

Popular Religion in the Eighteenth Century 373

Conclusion 374

Suggestions for Further Reading 375

Discovery 376

18 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY:

EUROPEAN STATES,

INTERNATIONAL WARS, AND

SOCIAL CHANGE 377

Th e European States 378

Enlightened Absolutism? 378

Th e Atlantic Seaboard States 379

FILM & HISTORY

Marie Antoinette (2006) 380

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe 381

Enlightened Absolutism Revisited 385

Wars and Diplomacy 386

Th e Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) 386

Economic Expansion and Social Change 388

Population and Food 388

Family, Marriage, and Birthrate Patterns 389

New Methods of Finance 390

European Industry 390

Mercantile Empires and Worldwide Trade 391

Th e Social Order of the Eighteenth Century 391

Th e Peasants 392

Detailed Contents xi

Th e Nobility 392

Th e Inhabitants of Towns and Cities 392

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

The Aristocratic Way of Life 393

Conclusion 396

Suggestions for Further Reading 396

Discovery 397

19 A REVOLUTION IN POLITICS:

THE ERA OF THE FRENCH

REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON 398

Th e Beginning of the Revolutionary Era:

Th e American Revolution 399

Th e War for Independence 399

Forming a New Nation 400

Background to the French Revolution 400

Social Structure of the Old Regime 401

Other Problems Facing the French Monarchy 402

Th e French Revolution 402

From Estates-General to National Assembly 402

Destruction of the Old Regime 403

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

The Natural Rights of the French People:

Two Views 405

Th e Radical Revolution 407

Reaction and the Directory 411

Th e Age of Napoleon 412

Th e Rise of Napoleon 412

Th e Domestic Policies of Emperor Napoleon 414

Napoleon’s Empire and the European Response 415

Conclusion 419

Suggestions for Further Reading 419

Discovery 420

20 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

AND ITS IMPACT ON EUROPEAN

SOCIETY 421

Th e Industrial Revolution in Great Britain 422

Origins of the Industrial Revolution 422

Technological Changes and New Forms of Industrial

Organization 423

Th e Great Exhibition: Britain in 1851 426

Th e Spread of Industrialization 428

Industrialization on the Continent 428

Centers of Continental Industrialization 429

Th e Industrial Revolution in the United States 429

Limiting the Spread of Industrialization 431

Th e Social Impact of the Industrial

Revolution 432

Population Growth 432

Th e Growth of Cities 433

New Social Classes: Th e Industrial Middle Class 434

New Social Classes: Workers in the Industrial Age 434

Eff orts at Change: Th e Workers 437

Eff orts at Change: Reformers and Government 438

Conclusion 438

Suggestions for Further Reading 439

Discovery 441

21 REACTION, REVOLUTION, AND

ROMANTICISM, 1815–1850 442

Th e Conservative Order, 1815–1830 443

Conservative Domination 443

Conservatives in the European States 447

Th e Ideologies of Change 448

Liberalism 448

Nationalism 450

Early Socialism 450

Revolution and Reform, 1830–1850 450

Th e Revolutions of 1830 450

Th e Revolutions of 1848 452

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

Response to Revolution:

Two Perspectives 454

Culture in an Age of Reaction and Revolution:

Th e Mood of Romanticism 456

Th e Characteristics of Romanticism 457

Romantic Poets and the Love of Nature 457

Romanticism in Art 458

Romanticism in Music 459

Conclusion 460

Suggestions for Further Reading 460

Discovery 462

22 AN AGE OF NATIONALISM AND

REALISM, 1850–1871 463

Th e France of Napoleon III 464

Louis Napoleon: Toward the Second Empire 464

Th e Second Napoleonic Empire 464

Foreign Policy: Th e Mexican Adventure 465

Foreign Policy: Th e Crimean War 465

National Unifi cation: Italy and Germany 466

Th e Unifi cation of Italy 466

Th e Unifi cation of Germany 467

xii DETAILED CONTENTS

Nation Building and Reform: Th e National State

in Mid-Century 470

Th e Austrian Empire: Toward a Dual

Monarchy 470

Imperial Russia 472

Great Britain: Th e Victorian Age 474

Th e United States: Slavery and War 474

Th e Emergence of a Canadian Nation 475

Industrialization and the Marxist Response 476

Marx and Marxism 476

Science and Culture in an Age of Realism 478

A New Age of Science 478

Charles Darwin and the Th eory of

Organic Evolution 478

Realism in Literature 479

Realism in Art 480

Conclusion 481

Suggestions for Further Reading 482

Discovery 483

23 MASS SOCIETY IN AN

“AGE OF PROGRESS,”

1871–1894 484

Th e Growth of Industrial Prosperity 485

New Products 485

New Markets 486

New Patterns in an Industrial Economy 486

Women and Work: New Job Opportunities 489

Organizing the Working Classes 489

Th e Emergence of a Mass Society 490

Population Growth 490

Emigration 491

Transformation of the Urban Environment 491

Th e Social Structure of a Mass Society 494

Th e “Woman Question”: Th e Role of Women 495

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

Advice to Women: Two Views 496

Education in the Mass Society 497

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

The Middle-Class Family 498

Mass Leisure 500

Th e National State 500

Western Europe: Th e Growth of Political

Democracy 501

Central and Eastern Europe: Persistence of the Old

Order 502

Conclusion 504

Suggestions for Further Reading 505

Discovery 506

24 AN AGE OF MODERNITY,

ANXIETY, AND IMPERIALISM,

1894–1914 507

Toward the Modern Consciousness: Intellectual

and Cultural Developments 508

Developments in the Sciences: A New Physics 508

Toward a New Understanding of the Irrational:

Nietzsche 509

Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis 509

Th e Impact of Darwin: Social Darwinism and Racism 510

Th e Culture of Modernity 511

Politics: New Directions and New Uncertainties 514

Th e Movement for Women’s Rights 514

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

The Struggle for the Right to Vote 516

Jews in the European Nation-State 517

Th e Transformation of Liberalism: Great Britain 517

France: Travails of the Th ird Republic 518

Growing Tensions in Germany 518

Austria-Hungary: Th e Problem of the Nationalities 518

Industrialization and Revolution in Imperial Russia 518

Th e Rise of the United States 519

Th e Growth of Canada 519

Th e New Imperialism 520

Impetus for the New Imperialism 520

Th e Creation of Empires 520

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

White Man’s Burden, Black Man’s Burden 521

Responses to Imperialism 525

Results of the New Imperialism 527

International Rivalry and the Coming of War 527

New Directions and New Crises 527

Crises in the Balkans, 1908–1913 528

Conclusion 530

Suggestions for Further Reading 530

Discovery 532

25 THE BEGINNING OF THE

TWENTIETH-CENTURY CRISIS:

WAR AND REVOLUTION 533

Th e Road to World War I 534

Nationalism and Internal Dissent 534

Militarism 534

Th e Outbreak of War: Th e Summer of 1914 535

Th e Great War 536

1914–1915: Illusions and Stalemate 537

1916–1917: Th e Great Slaughter 538

Detailed Contents xiii

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

Life in the Trenches 539

Th e Widening of the War 540

FILM & HISTORY

Paths of Glory (1957) 543

Th e Home Front: Th e Impact of Total War 544

War and Revolution 545

Th e Russian Revolution 546

Th e Last Year of the War 550

Th e Peace Settlement 551

Th e Treaty of Versailles 551

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

Three Voices of Peacemaking 552

Th e Other Peace Treaties 554

Conclusion 554

Suggestions for Further Reading 555

Discovery 557

26 THE FUTILE SEARCH FOR

STABILITY: EUROPE BETWEEN

THE WARS, 1919–1939 558

An Uncertain Peace: Th e Search for Security 559

Th e French Policy of Coercion, 1919–1924 559

Th e Hopeful Years, 1924–1929 559

Th e Great Depression 560

Th e Democratic States 561

European States and the World: Th e Colonial Empires 562

Th e Authoritarian and Totalitarian States 563

Th e Retreat from Democracy 563

Fascist Italy 564

Hitler and Nazi Germany 566

Th e Soviet Union 570

Authoritarian States 572

Th e Expansion of Mass Culture and Mass Leisure 573

Radio and Movies 573

Mass Leisure 574

Cultural and Intellectual Trends in the Interwar

Years 574

FILM & HISTORY

Triumph of the Will (1934) 575

Nightmares and New Visions: Art and Music 576

Th e Search for the Unconscious in Literature 577

Th e Unconscious in Psychology 578

Th e “Heroic Age of Physics” 578

Conclusion 579

Suggestions for Further Reading 580

Discovery 581

27 THE DEEPENING EUROPEAN

CRISIS: WORLD WAR II 582

Prelude to War 583

Th e “Diplomatic Revolution,” 1933–1937 583

Th e Path to War in Europe, 1938–1939 583

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

The Munich Conference: Two Views 586

Th e Path to War in Asia 586

Th e Course of World War II 587

Victory and Stalemate 587

Th e War in Asia 588

Th e Turning Point of the War, 1942–1943 590

Th e Last Years of the War 591

Th e New Order 593

Th e Nazi Empire 593

Th e Holocaust 594

Th e New Order in Asia 596

Th e Home Front 597

Th e Mobilization of Peoples 597

Civilians on the Front Line: Th e Bombing of Cities 599

Aft ermath of the War 601

Th e Costs of World War II 601

Allied War Conferences 601

Conclusion 604

Suggestions for Further Reading 605

Discovery 606

28 COLD WAR AND A NEW WESTERN

WORLD, 1945–1965 607

Development of the Cold War 608

Confrontation of the Superpowers 608

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

Who Started the Cold War? American

and Soviet Perspectives 609

Globalization of the Cold War 611

Europe and the World: Decolonization 612

Africa: Th e Struggle for Independence 613

Confl ict in the Middle East 614

Asia: Nationalism and Communism 616

Recovery and Renewal in Europe 617

Th e Soviet Union: From Stalin to Khrushchev 617

Eastern Europe: Behind the Iron Curtain 618

Western Europe: Th e Revival of Democracy and the

Economy 619

Western Europe: Th e Move Toward Unity 622

Th e United States and Canada: A New Era 622

American Politics and Society in the 1950s 623

xiv DETAILED CONTENTS

An Age of Upheaval: America in the 1960s 623

Th e Development of Canada 624

Postwar Society and Culture in the Western World 624

Th e Structure of European Society 624

Women in the Postwar Western World 625

Postwar Art 626

Postwar Literature 627

Th e Revival of Religion 627

Th e Explosion of Popular Culture 628

Conclusion 629

Suggestions for Further Reading 629

Discovery 630

29 PROTEST AND STAGNATION:

THE WESTERN WORLD,

1965–1985 631

A Culture of Protest 632

A Revolt in Sexual Mores 632

Youth Protest and Student Revolt 632

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

Youth Culture in the 1960s 633

Th e Feminist Movement 635

Antiwar Protests 635

A Divided Western World 636

Stagnation in the Soviet Union 636

Conformity in Eastern Europe 636

Western Europe: Th e Winds of Change 637

Th e European Community 639

Th e United States: Turmoil and Tranquillity 639

Canada 640

Th e Cold War: Th e Move to Détente 640

Th e Vietnam War 640

FILM & HISTORY

Dr. Strangelove, Or: How I Learned to Stop

Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964) 641

China and the Cold War 643

Th e Practice of Détente 643

Th e Limits of Détente 643

Society and Culture in the Western World 644

Th e World of Science and Technology 644

Th e Environment and the Green Movements 644

Postmodern Th ought 645

Trends in Art, Literature, and Music 646

Popular Culture: Image and Globalization 647

Conclusion 648

Suggestions for Further Reading 649

Discovery 650

30 AFTER THE FALL: THE WESTERN

WORLD IN A GLOBAL AGE

(SINCE 1985) 651

Toward a New Western Order 652

Th e Revolutionary Era in the Soviet Union 652

Eastern Europe: Th e Revolutions of 1989 and the Collapse

of the Communist Order 655

Th e Reunifi cation of Germany 657

Th e Disintegration of Yugoslavia 657

Western Europe and the Search for Unity 660

FILM & HISTORY

The Lives of Others (2006) 661

Th e Unifi cation of Europe 662

Th e United States: Move to the Center 662

Contemporary Canada 664

Aft er the Cold War: New World Order or Age

of Terrorism? 664

Th e End of the Cold War 664

An Age of Terrorism? 665

Terrorist Attack on the United States 666

New Directions and New Problems

in Western Society 667

Transformation in Women’s Lives 667

Guest Workers and Immigrants 668

Western Culture Today 670

Varieties of Religious Life 670

Art in the Age of Commerce: Th e 1980s

and 1990s 670

Th e Digital Age 670

Toward a Global Civilization 672

Th e Global Economy 672

Globalization and the Environmental Crisis 673

Th e Social Challenges of Globalization 673

New Global Movements and New Hopes 673

Suggestions for Further Reading 675

Discovery 676

Glossary 677

Pronunciation Guide 684

Chapter Notes 693

Index 702