Vietnam’s Political Process : How education shapes political decision-making

Vietnam’s Political Process

In a system that is known for its covert political style, Vietnam’s decision￾making process is often described as either consensus-based or simply confusing

and inexplicable. This book provides an approach to understanding political

decision-making in Vietnam by recognizing enduring values that are derived

from State-controlled education and official historical narratives.

The nation’s official historical narrative has led to the development of pro￾tected values that are called upon during political decision-making. In order to

secure these values, such as regime stability, national independence, and social

order, officials must act within accepted rules of appropriate political behavior.

The book shows that through State-run education, mandatory defense training,

and membership in mass organizations, Vietnamese citizens are taught social

and political ethics, and their identity is moulded in concert with this process.

Using textbooks and education to understand the underlying values within

Vietnam’s society is used as the contextual framework for two case studies – the

problem of landmines and the on-going threat of avian influenza – which

examine how authorities frame problems, negotiate, and deal with potential

crises.

This book will be of great interest to academics and students within Asian

studies, but also for policy makers involved with the country and those under￾standing business in Vietnam, including non-governmental organizations, private

businesses and charitable groups.

Casey Lucius is an Associate Professor at the Naval War College, Monterey,

California and was the operations assistant to the US ambassador to Vietnam.

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25 Vietnam’s Political Process

How education shapes political

decision-making

Casey Lucius

Vietnam’s Political Process

How education shapes political

decision-making

Casey Lucius

First published 2009

by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge

270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2009 Casey Lucius.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now

known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in

any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing

from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Lucius, Casey.

Vietnam’s political process: how education shapes political decision￾making/Casey Lucius.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references.

1. Public administration–Vietnam. 2. Education–Political aspects–

Vietnam. 3. Decision-making–Political aspects–Vietnam. 4. Political

culture–Vietnam. 5. Vietnam–Politics and government. I. Title.

JQ831L83 2009

320.609597–dc22 2008052562

ISBN10: 0-415-49812-0 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0-203-87616-4 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978-0-415-49812-8 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978-0-203-87616-9 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010.

To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s

collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.

ISBN 0-203-87616-4 Master e-book ISBN

Contents

List of illustrations ix

Preface x

Acknowledgments xx

1 Introduction 1

Rule-following and decision-making literature 2

Vietnam’s political structure 8

Perspectives on current decision-making 12

2 A historical and cultural framework 15

The official historical discourse 16

Creating an official culture 23

Conclusion 25

3 Review of Vietnamese text books and defense education 27

The current structure and priority of education 29

Main themes taught to Vietnamese citizens 30

The values taught to today’s leadership 48

Summary and conclusion 50

4 A case study on the National Landmine Impact Survey

in Vietnam 57

The nature and extent of the problem 57

Entities involved in the National Landmine Impact Survey 61

Actions taken on the landmine/UXO problem 62

Phase I of the National Landmine Impact Survey 64

Phase II of the National Landmine Impact Survey 76

Data collected from interviews and literature 80

Analysis of decision-making 81

viii Contents

5 A case study on Vietnam’s response to AI 87

The nature and extent of the problem 87

Decisions made by Vietnamese officials 93

International and intra-national partners 96

Actions taken against AI in Vietnam 98

Future actions to be taken against AI in Vietnam 104

Existing challenges for Vietnamese officials 105

Vietnam’s achievements in the fight against AI 109

Analysis of decision-making 110

6 Comparison and analysis of two case studies 115

7 Other things to consider about decision-making

in Vietnam 122

The role of the people in political decision-making 122

The role of mass organizations 126

The role of the media 129

Economic factors 132

The possibility of political change 134

Conclusion 136

8 Conclusion 138

Rules and protected values 139

The official role of the people and the party 141

Future changes 142

Final thoughts 145

Appendix A: political system of Vietnam 147

Appendix B: Government of Vietnam 148

Appendix C: political bureau members 150

Notes 151

Bibliography 171

Index 179

Illustrations

Figures

1 Map indicating landmine survey locations 78

2 Provinces in Vietnam affected by avian influenza 91

3 Communist Party of Vietnam structure; central to commune level 123

4 Vietnamese government structure with US equivalents 124

Table

1 Cumulative number of confirmed human cases of avian

influenza A/H5N1 reported by WHO, 10 September 2008 89

Preface

This book seeks to provide one approach for better understanding the way in

which Vietnam’s top political officials make policy decisions. In a system that is

known for its covert political style, Vietnam’s decision-making process is often

described as either consensus-based, or simply confusing and inexplicable. Alter￾natively, this book provides evidence to show that the political behavior of Viet￾namese officials can be understood first through a pattern of recognizing and

emphasizing enduring values and institutions and, second, through consideration

of national preferences and consequences. This writing reflects how the nation’s

official historical narrative has affected the psychology of citizens and political

leaders alike. A narrative centered on the nation’s wartime past and life under a

subsidy economy has led to the development of protected values that are called

upon during political decision-making. Further, in order to secure these values,

such as regime stability, national independence, and social order, officials must

act within accepted rules of appropriate political behavior. This book will show

that through education, mandatory defense training, and membership in mass

organizations, Vietnamese citizens are taught social and political ethics, and more

importantly, their identity is molded in concert with this process. Vietnamese

identity is taught and imposed rather than created or discovered, and the political

system spends a great deal of time perpetuating the meaning of identities and the

principles of proper behavior. Therefore, protected values, such as those men￾tioned above, inform the rules that set boundaries for political and social behav￾ior, and consequently, policies serve to establish boundaries intended to secure an

accepted national identity. Two current policy issues will illustrate how national

preferences and protected values overlap and coexist. Case studies on the land￾mine problem in Vietnam and the Government’s approach to avian influenza will

demonstrate how ministerial-level officials utilize protected values in order to

safeguard both the people and territory of Vietnam, but mostly to secure the legit￾imacy and identity of the Communist Party.

This book will be of use to anyone wanting to learn more about Vietnam, but

also those who are interested in alternative political decision-making models.

The findings in this book should not be limited to only understanding Vietnam￾ese political processes, but may also provide a broader understanding into the

ways in which historical narratives are used during the decision-making process.

Preface xi

The approach used to better understand Vietnam’s political system could be used

to study and learn about other governments with a similar structure, including

China, Cuba, and North Korea. Similarly, because many Asian nations experi￾enced a history of colonialism and foreign wars, the methods used for better

understanding Vietnam’s history and the development of its cultural values

could also be used to examine how these factors influence modern day politics in

other Southeast Asian nations including Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, and the

Philippines.

There have been many authors who have written on Vietnam’s history,

particularly on the nation’s experiences during wartime, and there have been a

few scholars who have studied and written about Vietnam’s political system, but

there is a clear gap in the existing literature explaining or describing Vietnam’s

political decision-making process. The need exists for an in-depth analysis of

Vietnam’s political practices and this book will begin to fulfill this need.

Methodology

Much of the research conducted for this book took place between 2005–08 while

I was living and working in Hà Nội. During this time, I was exposed to social

customs and norms, work processes, economic and political changes, and overall

internal dynamics. In Vietnam, doing research is not always easy and it is diffi￾cult to approach officials unless you are directly linked to an institution in

Vietnam or traveling on an academic visa. I was not associated with any aca￾demic institution in Vietnam although I was indirectly linked with the US

Embassy and the Hà Nội University. Because I taught at the Ha Nội University

of Foreign Studies, I was able to conduct research at the National Library, and

while working with the US Ambassador, I was able to meet with provincial and

ministerial-level officials.

I approached this project by first familiarizing myself with Vietnam’s

accepted and approved historical narratives and State-constructed culture. I did

this by studying the existing literature on these topics, which will be reviewed in

Chapter 1. I also found it worthwhile to study Vietnamese high school text books

to see how history and culture are taught to Vietnamese youth by Vietnamese

teachers. Through the examination of text books, I was able to see the beginning

stages of the development of protected values that are taught at all levels of

society and that may be called upon at different times by both children and

adults. The literature and the text books that are used in this study both reveal

themes including the need for social harmony, citizen duties and responsibilities,

specifically the duty of all citizens to defend the country because Vietnam has

been, and continues to be, under constant threat from outsiders. Yet probably the

most important theme found in the literature and text books is the need for

regime stability and the significant role the Communist Party plays in protecting

the people and securing national independence.

I began by formulating a historical and cultural contextual framework based

on the existing literature on these topics. I discuss the developments of cultural

xii Preface

policy in Vietnam, but I rely more heavily on the nation’s history as it is told by

the Vietnamese to build a framework for this writing. After examining the liter￾ature, I also looked at the way in which history is taught to Vietnamese by Viet￾namese. History is taught in schools using text books and defense education, it is

also taught through the media, in museums, and by use of official voice, meaning

the ideology that is spread to the people by high-ranking political leaders during

speeches and celebrations. In Gramsci’s words, the State uses an extended state,

including education, media, and the legal system to regulate national discourse. I

chose to look at each of these methods of teaching history and citizenship in

order to better understand how the Vietnamese view themselves and their own

history, and to see if and how I can better understand current day political prac￾tices in the context of these historical narratives.

In order to examine high school text books, I hired two translators to aid in

my analysis of the texts and education laws. One translator was a fourth year

college student who translated the most recent education law. The second trans￾lator was a young lady in her mid-twenties who has translated several books and

she also translated high school history texts in grades nine and 11 and citizenship

text books from grades nine, 11, and 12.1

The education system in Vietnam including defense education, Communist

Party indoctrination of the youth, and the interpretation of Vietnam’s history are

essential elements to determine the values, norms, and rules that are introduced

to the Vietnamese citizenry at a very young age. For example, at the age of eight,

children have the opportunity to become “pioneers” and represent the ideals of

the Communist Party of Vietnam among their family and friends through the

Party’s pioneer organization. These young pioneers can be easily identified by

the red scarves they wear with their school uniforms. Pioneers then have the

potential to be selected to become members of the Hồ Chí Minh Youth Organ￾ization and they will continue to wear the red scarves throughout secondary

school. These same students later have the opportunity to go on to become

members of the elite Youth Union, a prerequisite for becoming a Communist

Party member and political leader. As demonstrated by examining these organi￾zations and other teaching methods, the political and ethical indoctrination

begins at a very young age and the students’ education goes beyond text book

study.

Students in high school and college in Vietnam undergo mandatory defense

education in addition to their normal course of study and extracurricular activ￾ities. All high school students are taught how to use grenades, operate a gun,

march in formation, and generally how to defend themselves and their com￾munities. At university level students must participate in a month-long military

training program at the beginning of each academic year. This training is com￾pulsory and must be completed before students are eligible to receive their bach￾elor’s degrees. This training consists of more than simply physically mastering

military techniques; it is an intellectual training ground where students are taught

the principles of Communism, Marxist–Leninism, and Hồ Chí Minh Thought.

The values of the Party and the responsibilities of citizens are reinforced during

Preface xiii

these training periods.2

Not only do the text books and the defense education

system help one to better understand the nation’s version of history, but some

baseline rules and values are also revealed through this process. Therefore, the

primary method for determining how societal rules and protected values are con￾structed included a comprehensive study of Vietnamese high school text books,

the defense education system, and interviews with students, teachers, and other

citizens. Additionally, in order to have a broader perspective on teaching

methods in Vietnam, I attended and taught a fourth year college class on Viet￾nam’s foreign policy at the Hà Nội University of Foreign Studies.3

I also sub￾scribed to the Vietnam Social Sciences journal which includes monthly articles

in Vietnamese and English on culture, education, and politics written by Viet￾namese academics.

In order to test the argument that historical narratives and education play a

role in the development of protected values and that these enduring values are

called upon during national level decision-making, I researched two case studies.

The first case study focuses on the National Landmine Impact Survey initiated

by the American-based NGO, Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation

(VVAF). One reason I chose this case study was because I had learned through a

series of interviews that the Ministry of Defense (MOD) was one of the most

powerful decision-making bodies in Vietnam. If this were true, this case study

would then provide an example of how other decisions in Vietnam are made

given that the MOD probably has input into most national level policy decisions.

Furthermore, the problem of landmines and unexploded ordnance in Vietnam

has been an issue of concern since before 1975, which alone says something

about the way the MOD makes decisions. This issue of timing and MOD

responsibility piqued my curiosity and I desired to learn more about how the

MOD makes decisions, what its role is in the broader scope of national policy

decisions, and why action on landmines has taken over 30 years, and what this

says for other national issues of concern.

Regarding the problem of landmines and unexploded ordnance in Vietnam,

approximately 20 percent of the nation continues to be contaminated with

350,000–800,000 tons of unexploded ordnance spread throughout 64 provinces.4

The Ministry of Labor, Invalids, and Social Affairs (MoLISA) reported in 2000

that 38,849 Vietnamese have been killed and 65,852 have been injured since

1975 as a result of mines and unexploded ordnance.5

Since the Vietnamese have

become increasingly involved in large scale infrastructure projects, housing con￾struction, and agricultural expansion throughout the country, mines and unex￾ploded ordnance have become burdensome barriers to economic ventures and

infrastructure development.

A case study focusing on the National Landmine Impact Survey, which is an

issue of national significance and contention with both political and economic

repercussions, reveals how the Government of Vietnam, and specifically the

MOD, provincial officials, and Party leaders cooperate with local and interna￾tional NGOs, foreign governments, and one another. Further, this case study pro￾vides a glimpse into how decisions are made in an effort to implement important

xiv Preface

and necessary steps toward clearing mines and unexploded ordnance. By study￾ing the negotiations, implementation, and results of the National Landmine

Impact Survey, the decision-making process will reveal that Vietnamese govern￾ment officials, particularly the MOD officials, make landmine policy decisions

based on historically grounded rules, and more specifically, protected values that

are revealed through historical narratives, such as the need to protect the territo￾rial sovereignty of Vietnam.

In an effort to show how the MOD, as the lead agency on landmine matters,

has framed this problem in a historical context I interviewed various experts on

landmines and representatives from NGOs throughout Vietnam and met inform￾ally with MOD officials on several occasions. Specifically I interviewed repre￾sentatives from the VVAF, AUSAID, USAID, Catholic Relief Services,

UNICEF, the US Embassy, Peace Trees Vietnam, Clear Path International,

Mines Advisory Group, and the Landmine Monitor in Huế. At one point I asked

a high-level official from the MOD if I could interview him on this issue and he

said, “We don’t do interviews . .. on-the-record, off-the-record, formal, informal,

we don’t do interviews.” MOD officials have a Foreign Relations Regulation

that prohibits active duty military officials from meeting with foreigners outside

of the proper channels which would consist of going through the External Rela￾tions Department. As a result, I used diplomatic functions, military celebrations,

and dinner receptions to informally discuss my case study with officials from

The Center for Bomb and Mine Disposal Technology (BOMICEN), Engineering

Command, and the External Relations Department of MOD.

The second case study focuses on the threat of avian influenza (AI) in

Vietnam and the official response by government leaders in order to reveal how

two different ministries, the Ministry of Health (MOH) and the Ministry of Agri￾culture and Rural Development (MARD) have responded to and essentially

avoided a potential crisis. The Prime Minister and these two ministries made

four key decisions, and carried out various internationally encouraged programs

which led to a significant decline in AI-related human deaths. In late 2005 when

I chose this case study, the government was receiving international praise for its

handling of this issue, including open and transparent reporting, implementation

of vaccination campaigns, and educating the public from the village level all the

way to the national level. Again, this situation piqued my curiosity because for

the previous six months I had heard and read about how closed the political

system in Vietnam was, how the media often reported only positive news, and

how significant decisions were only made by the Prime Minister, the Political

Bureau, or preeminent ministries such as the MOD. The AI problem provided a

case in which none of these were true. In this case, access to information did not

seem to be challenging, because this was one topic that government officials

were publicly discussing practically daily and the media was incredibly open

about new outbreaks and follow-on actions. Also, unlike the first case study and

many other national issues, the MOD has a smaller role in this case study. The

primary players are the MARD and the MOH; two ministries that are not well

known for their decision-making authority, but have taken the limelight in