Understanding International Diplomacy

Understanding International Diplomacy

This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the study of international

diplomacy, covering both theory and practice. This second edition has been revised

and updated, with new material on such key contemporary issues as Syria, Ukraine,

migration and the South China Sea.

The text summarizes and discusses the major trends in the field of diplomacy,

providing an innovative theoretical approach to understanding diplomacy not as a

collection of practices or a set of historical traditions, but as a form of institutional￾ized communication through which authorized representatives produce, manage and

distribute public goods. The book:

• Traces the evolution of diplomacy from its beginnings in ancient Egypt, Greece

and China to our current age of global diplomacy.

• Examines theoretical explanations about how diplomats take decisions, make

relations and shape the world.

• Discusses normative approaches to how diplomacy ought to adapt itself to the

twenty-first century, help re-make states and assist the peaceful evolution of inter￾national order.

In sum, Understanding International Diplomacy provides an up-to-date, accessible and

authoritative overview of how diplomacy works and, indeed, ought to work in a glo￾balized world.

This textbook will be essential reading for students of international diplomacy, and

is highly recommended for students of crisis negotiation, international organizations,

foreign policy and IR in general.

Corneliu Bjola is Associate Professor in Diplomatic Studies at the University of

Oxford, UK. He has authored or edited six books, including the recent co-edited

volumes Countering Online Propaganda and Violent Extremism (with James Pamment,

2018), Secret Diplomacy (with Stuart Murray, 2016) and Digital Diplomacy (with Marcus

Holmes, 2015).

Markus Kornprobst is Professor of International Relations at the Diplomatic Academy

of Vienna, Austria. He is author of Irredentism in International Politics (2008) and

co-editor of Metaphors of Globalization (with Vincent Pouliot and Nisha Shah, 2008),

Arguing Global Governance (with Corneliu Bjola, 2010) and Communication, Legitimation

and Morality in Modern Politics (with Uriel Abulof, 2017).

‘Writing with clarity, authority and insight, Bjola and Kornprobst deliver the

essential introduction to the study and practice of diplomacy. The welcome sec￾ond edition includes new scholarship and tackles the emerging issues that are

defining our time including migration and the crises in Syria and Ukraine. No

less significantly, the volume also considers new techniques of diplomacy from

social media to the emergence of cities as foreign policy actors. This book is an

invaluable guide to a vital field.’

Nicholas J. Cull, Professor of Public Diplomacy,

University of Southern California, USA

‘In many ways superior to the original, the revised edition updates the evolution

and transformation of diplomacy, more balanced in theory and practice, wide in

scope and succinct in narration, a rich menu for both students and practitioners

of diplomacy.’

Zhang Qingmin, Professor and Chair,

Department of Diplomacy, Peking University, China

‘Adopting a broad understanding of diplomacy and taking us on an exciting tour –

from foreign policy implementation to ethics, from bilateral engagements to plurilat￾eral and paradiplomatic ones, from traditional channels to new forms of diplomatic

communication – Understanding International Diplomacy is a welcome and valuable

addition to the expanding field of diplomatic studies. It provides an excellent intro￾duction and essential textbook for both the reflexive practitioner and the intellectu￾ally curious student of diplomacy.’

Costas M. Constantinou, Professor of International Relations,

University of Cyprus, Cyprus

Understanding International

Diplomacy

Theory, Practice and Ethics

Second Edition

Corneliu Bjola and

Markus Kornprobst

Second edition published 2018

by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

and by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

 2018 Corneliu Bjola and Markus Kornprobst

The right of Corneliu Bjola and Markus Kornprobst to be identified

as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with

sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,

or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including

photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or

retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks

or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and

explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Routledge 2013.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Names: Bjola, Corneliu, author. | Kornprobst, Markus, author.

Title: Understanding international diplomacy : theory, practice and

ethics / Corneliu Bjola, Markus Kornprobst.

Description: Second Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2018. |

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017047134| ISBN 9781138717305 (Hardback) |

ISBN 9781138717343 (Paperback) | ISBN 9781315196367

(eBook)

Subjects: LCSH: International cooperation. | International relations.

Classification: LCC JZ1308 .B58 2018 | DDC 327.2—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017047134

ISBN: 978-1-138-71730-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-71734-3 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-19636-7 (ebk)

Typeset in Baskerville

by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK

Contents

List of illustrations x

Acknowledgements xii

Abbreviations xiii

Preface xv

PART I

Introduction 1

1 Why and how to study diplomacy 3

Why study diplomacy? 3

Does diplomacy (still) matter? 4

Actors 4

Issue areas 5

Methods 5

How to define diplomacy 6

Broadening horizons for studying diplomacy 7

Overview 8

PART II

Tracing diplomacy 11

2 Historical evolution 13

Introduction 13

Ancient diplomacy 14

Representation procedures 15

Communication methods 16

Conflict management 18

Medieval diplomacy 20

Representation procedures 20

Communication methods 22

Conflict management 23

vi Contents

Modern diplomacy 24

Representation procedures 24

Communication methods 27

Conflict management 29

Summary 32

Study questions 34

Recommended further reading 34

3 Woodrow Wilson and the new diplomacy after World War I 36

Introduction 36

Open covenants of peace: accountable diplomacy 38

The case for accountability 38

Parliamentary oversight 41

Self-determination: equality and democracy 43

The case for self-determination 43

Legal formulations 45

Conference diplomacy 46

Collective security: the power of law and deliberation 49

The case for collective security 49

Diplomatic challenges 51

Summary 53

Study questions 53

Recommended further reading 54

4 Multiplicities of global diplomacy 55

Introduction 55

War and peace 56

Economics 60

Development 63

Environment 66

Health 69

Migration 70

Summary 73

Study questions 73

Recommended further reading 73

PART III

Mapping the diplomatic field 75

5 Contexts of global diplomacy 77

Introduction 77

The making of the Vienna Convention 78

Four major provisions 79

Contents vii

Updating the Vienna Convention? 84

Deeper backgrounds 85

Three schools of thought on deeper backgrounds 87

Illustrations of deeper backgrounds 88

Summary 91

Study questions 91

Recommended further reading 92

6 Tasks of global diplomacy 93

Introduction 93

Messaging 94

Negotiation 97

Mediation 101

Talk 106

Summary 110

Study questions 110

Recommended further reading 111

PART IV

Explaining diplomacy 113

7 The making of decisions 115

Introduction 115

Rational choice 116

Cuba, 1962 117

Psychological approaches 120

Iraq, 2003 121

Logic of appropriateness 123

Germany, diplomacy and intervention, 1949– 125

Logic of argumentation 126

Soviet Union, 1990 127

Logic of practice 128

France and Africa, 1960s– 129

Summary 131

Study questions 131

Recommended further reading 131

8 The making of relations 133

Introduction 133

Balancing: from outlaw to ally (and vice versa) 134

Relations between North Korea and the United States, 1993–2016 136

Interests: cooperative relations beyond alliance 138

EU foreign policy, 1957–2016 140

viii Contents

Identities: from enmity to friendship and beyond 144

From enmity to friendship to enmity: Eritrea and Ethiopia 148

Summary 150

Study questions 150

Recommended further reading 151

9 The making of the world 152

Introduction 152

Diplomats as makers of geopolitical architectures 153

Geopolitical architectures 156

Case study: the Ukraine crisis 157

Diplomats as makers of anarchic cultures 158

Case study: the ‘bad apple’ diplomacy of the Third Reich 162

Diplomats as makers of international deontologies 164

Case study: the deontology of climate change diplomacy 169

Summary 171

Study questions 172

Recommended further reading 172

PART V

Discussing normative approaches 173

10 Re-making the diplomat 175

Introduction 175

Diplomatic representation 176

The raison de système 176

Paradiplomacy 178

Diplomacy and power 180

Diplomatic recruitment and training 185

Digital diplomacy 188

Summary 191

Study questions 192

Recommended further reading 192

11 Re-making domestic institutions 194

Introduction 194

Diplomacy and peacebuilding 196

The fundamental question: to intervene or not to intervene? 198

What ought to be the end of peacebuilding? 200

What ought to be the means to this end? 202

Summary 207

Study questions 207

Recommended further reading 208

Contents ix

12 The peaceful re-making of the world 209

Introduction 209

Preventive diplomacy 210

The UN context 210

Regional preventive diplomacy 217

International criminal justice 220

The International Criminal Court 220

Hybrid courts 225

Summary 227

Study questions 228

Recommended further reading 228

PART VI

Conclusion 231

13 Quo Vadis diplomacy? 233

Studying diplomacy as communication 233

Adding to our understanding 235

Gender and diplomacy 237

Anti-diplomacy 238

A glimpse into the future: the new diplomacies 240

City diplomacy 240

Disaster diplomacy 242

Glossary 245

References 260

Index 283

Illustrations

Figures

6.1 Interplay of diplomatic contexts and diplomatic tasks 94

9.1 Deontologies of climate governance 169

12.1 Life-history of conflicts and phases of diplomatic engagement 215

Tables

2.1 Chinese strategic culture 20

2.2 Evolution of diplomacy 33

3.1 Number of international conferences by decade, 1840–1939 47

6.1 Explaining success and failure of mediation 104

12.1 Shortcomings and successes of the ECCC 226

Boxes

2.1 Greek diplomatic missions 17

2.2 Medieval diplomats 21

2.3 The rise of resident ambassadors in Italy 25

2.4 The policy of diplomatic prestige 28

2.5 Diplomatic ranking 30

2.6 The Concert of Europe in action 31

2.7 Colonial partition of Africa 32

3.1 The Wilsonian concept of self-determination 44

3.2 The Abyssinia crisis 50

3.3 Recommendations of the UN High Level Panel on Threats,

Challenges, and Change for authorizing the use of force 52

4.1 2005 World Summit Outcome: responsibility to protect 59

4.2 Agenda 2063 65

4.3 Disaster relief 70

4.4 Human trafficking 72

5.1 Persona non grata 81

5.2 2012 attacks on U.S. diplomats 83

5.3 Diplomatic asylum and Julian Assange 85

Illustrations xi

5.4 Applying for NGO accreditation 89

5.5 The Idea of Europe 90

6.1 Limitations of scholarly perspectives on negotiation 99

6.2 The Humanitarian Initiative 101

6.3 Former heads of state as mediators 105

6.4 Sports and music diplomacy 108

6.5 Techniques for learning from one another 110

7.1 Two-level games 116

7.2 Appeasement 121

7.3 Security Council Resolution 1973 124

7.4 Diplomacy and communicative action 127

7.5 The underlying rules of the diplomatic game 130

8.1 Kissinger, China and the United States 135

8.2 Iranian nuclear deal 137

8.3 Jean Monnet 139

8.4 Dag Hammerskjöld on the international civil servant 145

9.1 Symbolic interactionism 160

9.2 Deontology 165

10.1 The raison de système 177

10.2 Determinants of success of coercive diplomacy 181

10.3 Sources of soft power 182

10.4 U.S. public diplomacy in the Arab world 183

10.5 U.S. smart power as investment in five global public goods 184

10.6 Five principles of impactful digital diplomacy 189

11.1 ONUC and learning by doing 195

11.2 The UN Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) 197

11.3 Reconciliation vs justice? 206

12.1 Origins of the concept of preventive diplomacy 211

12.2 UN cases of preventive diplomacy 212

12.3 UN Early Warning systems 213

12.4 Examples of NGO conflict prevention initiatives 217

12.5 The negotiation process of Rome Statute establishing the

International Criminal Court (ICC) 222

Acknowledgements

We would like to extend our thanks to Andrew Humphrys and Hannah Ferguson who

have been tremendously helpful in assisting us with the publication of the second edi￾tion as well as to the blind peer reviewers for their valuable and constructive criticism.

We would also like to express our gratitude to Lise H. Andersen and Corina Traistaru

for their superb research assistance as well as the Oxford Department of International

Development and the Diplomatic Academy of Vienna for partially funding this pro￾ject. In writing this book, we took quite a lot of inspiration from our students. It is very

much with them and their contributions to our class discussions in mind that we have

written this book. We therefore dedicate this book to them.

Abbreviations

ANC African National Congress

APEC Asia-Pacific Cooperation

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

AU African Union

AU PSC Peace and Security Council (Africa Union)

CCP Common Commercial Policy

CD Conference for Disarmament

CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy

CPCC Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability

CSDP Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP)

CTBTO Preparatory Commission for a Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

Organization

DDR Demobilization, Disarmament and Reintegration

ECCC The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

EEAS European External Action Service

EFSF European Financial Stability Facility

EFSM European Financial Stabilisation Mechanism

EPC European Political Co-operation

EPLF Eritrean People’s Liberation Front

EU European Union

EUMC European Union Military Committee

EUMS European Union Military Staff

EU PSC Political and Security Committee (European Union)

ExComm Executive Committee

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FPA Foreign Policy Analysis

Frelimo Frente de Libertaçao de Moçambique

GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GMG Global Migration Group

HR High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

ICBL International Campaign to Ban Landmines

ICEM Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

IFP Inkatha Freedom Party

ILC International Law Commission

ILO International Labour Organization

IMF International Monetary Fund

xiv Abbreviations

IOM International Organization for Migration

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IR International Relations

IRO International Refugee Organization

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertaçao de Angola

NATO North-Atlantic Treaty Organization

NGO Nongovernmental organization

NP National Party

NPT Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

OAS Organization of American States

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

ONUC United Nations Operation in the Congo

OPCW Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons

OSS Sahara and Sahel Observatory

PBSO Peacebuilding Support Office

PFDJ People’s Front for Democracy and Justice

Renamo Resisténcia Nacional Mocambicana

SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

SSR Security Sector Reform

SU Soviet Union

SWAC Sahel and West Africa Club

TEC Treaty establishing the European Community

TPLF Tigray People’s Liberation Front

TPP Trans-Pacific Partnership

UN United Nations

UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS

UNCCD Permanent Secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat

Desertification

UNCTAD UN Conference on Trade and Development

UNDESA UN Department of Economic and Social

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Program

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund

UNGA United Nations General Assembly

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UNITA Uniao Nacional para Independência Total de Angola

UNITAR United Nations Institute for Training and Research

UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

UNPBC United Nations Peacebuilding Commission

UNRRA UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration

UNSC United Nations Security Council

U.S. United States

WFP World Food Programme

WHO World Health Organization

WTO World Trade Organization