Traffic and Highway engineering

Traffic and

Highway

Engineering

FOURTH EDITION

Nicholas J. Garber

Lester A. Hoel

University of Virginia

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Traffic and Highway Engineering, Fourth Edition

Nicholas J. Garber and Lester A. Hoel

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ISBN-13: 978-0-495-08250-7

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This book is dedicated to our wives,

Ada and Unni

and to our daughters,

Allison, Elaine, and Valerie

and

Julie, Lisa, and Sonja

With appreciation for the support, help, and encouragement that we received

during the years that were devoted to writing this textbook.

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PART 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1 The Profession of Transportation 3

Importance of Transportation 3

Transportation History 6

Transportation Employment 16

Summary 23

Problems 24

References 25

2 Transportation Systems and Organizations 27

Developing a Transportation System 27

Modes of Transportation 34

Transportation Organizations 47

Summary 51

Problems 52

References 54

PART 2 TRAFFIC OPERATIONS 55

3 Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian,

the Vehicle, and the Road 57

Driver Characteristics 58

Perception-Reaction Process 60

Older Drivers’ Characteristics 61

Pedestrian Characteristics 62

Bicyclists and Bicycles Characteristics 62

Vehicle Characteristics 63

Road Characteristics 88

Contents

v

Summary 93

Problems 95

References 98

4 Traffic Engineering Studies 99

Spot Speed Studies 100

Volume Studies 115

Travel Time and Delay Studies 133

Parking Studies 139

Summary 146

Problems 147

References 150

5 Highway Safety 151

Issues Involved in Transportation Safety 152

Strategic Highway Safety Plans 154

Effectiveness of Safety Design Features 190

Summary 208

Problems 208

References 212

6 Fundamental Principles of Traffic Flow 213

Traffic Flow Elements 213

Flow-Density Relationships 218

Shock Waves in Traffic Streams 230

Gap and Gap Acceptance 243

Introduction to Queuing Theory 249

Summary 258

Problems 258

7 Intersection Design 265

Types of At-Grade Intersections 266

Design Principles for At-Grade Intersections 276

Design of Railroad Grade Crossings 314

Summary 320

Problems 322

References 325

8 Intersection Control 327

General Concepts of Traffic Control 327

Conflict Points at Intersections 331

Types of Intersection Control 332

Signal Timing for Different Color Indications 342

Freeway Ramps 373

Summary 378

Problems 378

References 380

vi Contents

9 Capacity and Level of Service for Highway Segments 381

Two-Lane Highways 382

Freeways 406

Multilane Highways 424

Summary 430

Problems 431

References 434

Appendix: Tables 434

10 Capacity and Level of Service at Signalized Intersections 457

Definitions of Some Common Terms 457

Level of Service at Signalized Intersections 460

Summary 528

Problems 528

References 533

Appendix: Tables 534

PART 3 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING 549

11 The Transportation Planning Process 551

Basic Elements of Transportation Planning 552

Transportation Planning Institutions 562

Urban Transportation Planning 566

Forecasting Travel 574

Summary 586

Problems 587

References 588

12 Forecasting Travel Demand 591

Demand Forecasting Approaches 591

Trip Generation 593

Trip Distribution 603

Mode Choice 613

Traffic Assignment 625

Other Methods for Forecasting Demand 633

Estimating Freight Demand 637

Traffic Impact Studies 638

Summary 644

Problems 645

References 652

13 Evaluating Transportation Alternatives 653

Basic Issues in Evaluation 653

Evaluation Based on Economic Criteria 657

Evaluation Based on Multiple Criteria 669

Summary 684

Problems 684

References 689

Contents vii

PART 4 LOCATION, GEOMETRICS,

AND DRAINAGE 691

14 Highway Surveys and Location 693

Principles of Highway Location 693

Highway Survey Methods 701

Highway Earthwork and Final Plans 723

Summary 731

Problems 733

References 734

15 Geometric Design of Highway Facilities 737

Factors Influencing Highway Design 738

Design of the Alignment 754

Special Facilities for Heavy Vehicles on Steep Grades 790

Bicycle Facilities 791

Parking Facilities 796

Computer Use in Geometric Design 801

Summary 802

Problems 802

References 805

16 Highway Drainage 807

Surface Drainage 807

Highway Drainage Structures 809

Sediment and Erosion Control 811

Hydrologic Considerations 813

Unit Hydrographs 826

Hydraulic Design of Highway Drainage Structures 827

Subsurface Drainage 870

Economic Analysis 889

Summary 889

Problems 889

References 891

Additional Readings 892

PART 5 MATERIALS AND PAVEMENTS 893

17 Soil Engineering for Highway Design 895

Soil Characteristics 895

Basic Engineering Properties of Soils 899

Classification of Soils for Highway Use 907

Soil Surveys for Highway Construction 917

Soil Compaction 922

Special Soil Tests for Pavement Design 932

Frost Action in Soils 936

Summary 937

Problems 937

References 914

viii Contents

18 Bituminous Materials 943

Sources of Asphalt 943

Description and Uses of Bituminous Binders 946

Properties of Asphalt Materials 949

Tests for Asphalt Materials 953

Asphalt Mixtures 969

Superpave Systems 992

Summary 1019

Problems 1019

References 1022

19 Design of Flexible Pavements 1025

Structural Components of a Flexible Pavement 1025

Soil Stabilization 1027

General Principles of Flexible Pavement Design 1032

Summary 1070

Problems 1070

References 1073

20 Design of Rigid Pavements 1075

Materials Used in Rigid Pavements 1076

Joints in Concrete Pavements 1081

Types of Rigid Highway Pavements 1083

Pumping of Rigid Pavements 1084

Stresses in Rigid Pavements 1085

Thickness Design of Rigid Pavements 1093

Summary 1129

Problems 1129

References 1131

21 Pavement Management 1133

Problems of Highway Rehabilitation 1133

Methods for Determining Roadway Condition 1136

Pavement Condition Prediction 1151

Pavement Rehabilitation 1160

Pavement Rehabilitation Programming 1162

GIS and Pavement Management 1172

Summary 1174

Problems 1174

References 1176

Appendixes 1177

Index 1207

Contents ix

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Traffic and Highway Engineering, Fourth Edition, is designed for students in engi￾neering programs where courses in transportation, highway, or traffic engineering are

offered. In most cases, these courses are taught in the third or fourth year but are also

covered at the graduate level. This book also is designed to serve as a professional

reference. Thus, the objectives of this textbook are: (1) To be a contemporary and

complete text in highway and traffic engineering that can be used primarily at the

undergraduate level. It may be used at the graduate level for courses that emphasize

highway topics. Due to its complete coverage of the material, the textbook is designed

for flexible use in developing a single course or for use in two or more courses. (2) To

serve as a reference for engineers in the highway field and as a study guide for use in

preparing for the professional engineering license exam, review courses, and prepa￾ration for graduate comprehensive exams in transportation engineering.

Since the subject of transportation engineering is a broad one, several approaches

can be used to introduce this topic to students. One approach is to cover all trans￾portation modes—air, highway, pipeline, public, rail, and water—in an overview-type

course. This approach ensures comprehensive coverage but tends to be superficial

with uneven coverage of some modes and can be lacking in depth. A second approach

is to present the subject of transportation by generic elements, such as vehicle and

guideway characteristics, capacity analysis, planning, design, safety, human factors,

administration, finance, system models, information technology, operations, and so

forth. This approach is appealing because each of the modes is considered within a

common context and the similarities between various modes are emphasized. Our

recent textbook, Transportation Infrastructure Engineering: A Multi-Modal Integra￾tion, is based on this concept. A third approach is to emphasize one mode, such as

highways, airports, maritime, transit, or railroads, where the material is specific and

unambiguous and the subject matter can be directly applied in practice. There is con￾siderable pedagogical merit in focusing on one mode, which is followed herein.

Preface

xi

This book emphasizes the subject of traffic and highway engineering, which is a

major area within civil engineering. It appeals to students because they can relate

directly to problems created by motor vehicle travel. We believe that this topic is

appropriate within a transportation curriculum or as an introductory transportation

course because it provides an opportunity to present material that is not only useful

to engineering students who may pursue careers in or related to transportation engi￾neering, but is also interesting and challenging to those who intend to work in other

areas. Furthermore, this book can serve as a reference for practicing transportation

engineers and for use by students in graduate courses. Thus, our overall objective is to

provide a way for students to get into the area of transportation engineering, develop

a feel for what it is about, and thereby experience the challenges of the profession.

The text chapters present materials that will help students understand the basis

for transportation, its importance, and the extent to which transportation pervades

our daily lives. The text also provides information about the basic areas in which

transportation engineers work: traffic operations and management, planning, design,

construction, and maintenance. Thus, this book has been categorized into five parts:

Part 1, Introduction (to the profession, its history, systems, and organizations) Part 2,

Traffic Operations; Part 3, Transportation Planning; Part 4, Location, Geometrics,

and Drainage; and Part 5, Materials and Pavements.

The topical division of the book organizes the material so that it may be used in

one or more separate courses. For a single course in transportation engineering,

which is usually offered in the third year where the emphasis is on traffic and highway

aspects, we recommend that material from Parts 1, 2, and 3 (Chapters 1–13) be cov￾ered. For a course in highway engineering, where the emphasis is on highway location,

design, materials, and pavements, we recommend that material from Parts 2, 4, and 5

(Chapters 3 and 14–21) be used. A single introductory course in transportation facil￾ities design could include Chapters 1, 2, 3, 14, 15, 16, 19, and 21.

The book also is appropriate for use in a two-semester sequence in transportation

engineering in which traffic engineering and planning (Chapters 3–13) would be cov￾ered in the first course, and highway design (Chapters 14–21) would be covered in the

second course.

The success of our textbook has been a source of great satisfaction, because we

believe that it has contributed to the better understanding of highway transportation

in all its dimensions. We wish to thank our colleagues and their students for selecting

this book for use in transportation courses taught in colleges and universities

throughout the United States. The fourth edition builds on this experience and the

success of our pedagogic approach, which is to include many examples in each chapter

that illustrate basic concepts, a list of references, a comprehensive problem set at

the end of each chapter (with complete instructor’s manual), an organizational struc￾ture that subdivides the material into logical and easy-to-understand elements, and a

large number of tables and diagrams that augment the text and ensure completeness

of material.

Transportation is a fast-moving field, and the fourth edition reflects many

changes that have occurred since the book was first published in 1988 and the

third edition published in 2002. In the fourth edition, we have added new material

and expanded and updated each chapter to reflect new methods, procedures, and

xii Preface

technology. The number and variety of homework problems have been increased and

section numbering has been added.

The authors are indebted to many individuals who assisted in reviewing various

chapters and drafts of the original manuscript. We especially wish to thank the

following for their helpful comments and suggestions: Edward Beimborn, David

Boyce, Christian Davis, Michael Demetsky, Richard Gunther, Jerome Hall, Jotin

Khisty, Lydia Kostyniak, Michael Kyte, Winston Lung, Kenneth McGhee, Carl Moni￾smith, Ken O’Connell, Anthony Saka, Robert Smith, Egons Tons, Joseph Wattle￾worth, Hugh Woo, and Robert Wortman.

In the preparation of later editions, we are indebted to many colleagues who pro￾vided helpful comments and suggestions. We also thank several of our colleagues and

students who read specific chapters and suggested new end-of-chapter problems.

Those whom we particularly wish to acknowledge are Maher Alghazzawi, Rakim

Benekohal, Stephen Brich, Bernard Carlson, Stacey Diefenderfer, Brian Diefend￾erfer, Conrad Dudek, Lily Elefteriadou, Thomas Freeman, Ron Gallagher, Alan Ges￾ford, Arkopal Goswami, Jiwan Gupta, Kathleen Hancock, Marvin Hilton, Feng-Bor

Lin, Qun Liu, Yuan Lu, Catherine McGhee, Richard McGinnis, John Miller, Jack

Page, Brian Park, Adel Sadek, Mitsuru Saito, Gerald Seeley, Ed Sullivan, James

Taylor, Joseph Vidunas, Peter Weiss, W. James Wilde, F. Andrew Wolfe, Shaw Yu,

and Yihua Ziong.

We thank Richard Boaz and Michael Zmuda and the Virginia Department of

Transportation’s Survey & Photogrammetry Section within Location & Design and

the Virginia Transportation Research Council for their help and support. We also

thank Lewis Woodson and Chase Buchannan for responding to our call for new pho￾tographs. The many organizations cited herein that permitted us to include material

from their publication deserve special mention because, without their support, our

book would not have been a reality.

And finally, we wish to thank the reviewers of the fourth edition for their

insightful comments and helpful suggestions: Per Garder, Tom Maze, Thomas Nelson,

Emelinda Parentela, Hamid Soleymani, James Stoner, Rod Turochy, and Erol Tutum￾luer, and to our editors, Jane Carlson and Hilda Gowans, for their help and guidance

in the preparation of this edition.

Nicholas J. Garber

Lester A. Hoel

Preface xiii

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