Thermodynamics and heat power

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Thermodynamics

and

Heat Power

Irving Granet and Maurice Bluestein

Eighth Edition

Thermodynamics and Heat Power

Eighth Edition

Thermodynamics

and Heat Power

Granet

•

Bluestein

Eighth

Edition

“The authors have adopted simple yet engaging ways to present and discuss complex concepts of thermodynamics.

Solved illustrative problems are discreetly placed following the explanation of each new concept. The concepts

have been introduced from the basic principles and progressively taken to the advanced level.”

—Mohammad Hossain, Ph.D., York Technical College, Rock Hill, South Carolina, USA

Building on the last edition, (dedicated to exploring alternatives to coal- and oil-based energy conversion methods

and published more than ten years ago), Thermodynamics and Heat Power, Eighth Edition updates the status

of existing direct energy conversion methods as described in the previous work. Offering a systems approach to

the analysis of energy conversion methods, this text focuses on the fundamentals involved in thermodynamics,

and further explores concepts in the areas of ideal gas flow, engine analysis, air conditioning, and heat transfer.

It examines energy, heat, and work in relation to thermodynamics, and also explores the properties of temperature

and pressures. The book emphasizes practical mechanical systems and incorporates problems at the end of the

chapters to advance the application of the material.

What’s New in the Eighth Edition:

• An emphasis on a systems approach to problems

• More discussion of the types of heat and of entropy

• Added explanations for understanding pound mass and the mole

• Analysis of steady-flow gas processes, replacing the compressible flow section

• The concept of paddle work to illustrate how frictional effects can be analyzed

• A clearer discussion of the psychrometric chart and its usage in analyzing air conditioning systems

• Updates of the status of direct energy conversion systems

• A description of how the cooling tower is utilized in high-rise buildings

• Practical automotive engine analysis

• Expanded Brayton cycle analysis including intercooling, reheat, and regeneration and their effect

on gas turbine efficiency

• A description of fins and how they improve heat transfer rates

• Added illustrative problems and new homework problems

• Availability of a publisher’s website for fluid properties and other reference materials

• Properties of the latest in commercial refrigerants

This text presents an understanding of basic concepts on the subject of thermodynamics and is a definitive

resource for undergraduate students in engineering programs, most specifically, students studying engineering

technology.

Thermodynamics

and

Heat Power

Eighth Edition

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Irving Granet, PE

Professor of Engineering

City University of New York

Maurice Bluestein

Professor Emeritus

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis

Thermodynamics

and

Heat Power

Eighth Edition

This work was previously published by Pearson Education, Inc.

CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Group

6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300

Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Version Date: 20141020

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-3856-3 (eBook - PDF)

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This book is dedicated to the memory of Irving Granet

vii

Contents

Preface........................................................................................................................................... xiii

Author.............................................................................................................................................xv

Symbols ....................................................................................................................................... xvii

1. Fundamental Concepts..........................................................................................................1

1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................1

1.2 Thermodynamic Systems ............................................................................................2

1.2.1 Application of System Concept......................................................................2

1.2.2 Properties of a System.....................................................................................3

1.3 Temperature...................................................................................................................4

1.4 Force and Mass............................................................................................................ 15

1.4.1 English System ............................................................................................... 15

1.4.2 SI System ......................................................................................................... 17

1.5 Elementary Kinetic Theory of Gases........................................................................25

1.6 Pressure ........................................................................................................................28

1.6.1 Dead-Weight Piston Gauge...........................................................................35

1.6.2 Manometer......................................................................................................36

1.6.3 Micromanometer ...........................................................................................40

1.6.4 Barometers ......................................................................................................42

1.6.5 McLeod Gauge ...............................................................................................43

1.7 Review ..........................................................................................................................50

Key Terms ...............................................................................................................................50

Equations Developed in This Chapter................................................................................ 51

Questions ................................................................................................................................ 52

Problems.................................................................................................................................. 52

2. Work, Energy, and Heat.......................................................................................................59

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................59

2.2 Work..............................................................................................................................60

2.3 Energy........................................................................................................................... 62

2.4 Internal Energy............................................................................................................63

2.5 Potential Energy..........................................................................................................64

2.6 Kinetic Energy.............................................................................................................68

2.7 Heat...............................................................................................................................72

2.8 Flow Work....................................................................................................................73

2.9 Nonflow Work .............................................................................................................75

2.10 Review .......................................................................................................................... 81

Key Terms ............................................................................................................................... 81

Equations Developed in This Chapter................................................................................82

Questions ................................................................................................................................82

Problems..................................................................................................................................82

viii Contents

3. First Law of Thermodynamics...........................................................................................89

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................89

3.2 First Law of Thermodynamics..................................................................................90

3.3 Nonflow System ..........................................................................................................90

3.4 Steady-Flow System ....................................................................................................97

3.4.1 Conservation of Mass—Continuity Equation ...........................................97

3.4.2 Steady-Flow Energy Equation.................................................................... 102

3.4.3 Bernoulli Equation....................................................................................... 106

3.4.4 Specific Heat ................................................................................................. 107

3.5 Applications of First Law of Thermodynamics.................................................... 109

3.5.1 Turbine........................................................................................................... 110

3.5.2 Pipe Flow....................................................................................................... 116

3.5.3 Boiler.............................................................................................................. 118

3.5.4 Nozzle............................................................................................................ 120

3.5.5 Throttling Process .......................................................................................123

3.5.6 Heat Exchanger............................................................................................ 124

3.5.7 Filling a Tank................................................................................................ 127

3.6 Review ........................................................................................................................ 128

Key Terms ............................................................................................................................. 129

Equations Developed in This Chapter.............................................................................. 129

Questions .............................................................................................................................. 130

Problems................................................................................................................................ 131

4. The Second Law of Thermodynamics............................................................................ 141

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 142

4.2 Reversibility—Second Law of Thermodynamics................................................. 143

4.3 The Carnot Cycle....................................................................................................... 145

4.4 Entropy ....................................................................................................................... 157

4.5 Review ........................................................................................................................ 173

Key Terms ............................................................................................................................. 173

Equations Developed in This Chapter.............................................................................. 174

Questions .............................................................................................................................. 174

Problems................................................................................................................................ 175

5. Properties of Liquids and Gases ..................................................................................... 183

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 183

5.2 Liquids and Vapors................................................................................................... 184

5.3 Thermodynamic Properties of Steam.................................................................... 188

5.4 Computerized Properties......................................................................................... 212

5.5 Thermodynamic Diagrams ..................................................................................... 216

5.6 Processes .................................................................................................................... 224

5.6.1 Throttling...................................................................................................... 224

5.6.2 Constant-Volume Process (Isometric Process).........................................226

5.6.3 Adiabatic Processes .....................................................................................229

5.6.4 Constant-Pressure Process (Isobaric Process)..........................................233

5.6.5 Constant-Temperature Process (Isothermal Process) .............................233

5.7 Review ........................................................................................................................235

Key Terms .............................................................................................................................236

Equations Developed in This Chapter..............................................................................236

Contents ix

Questions .............................................................................................................................. 237

Problems................................................................................................................................ 237

6. The Ideal Gas....................................................................................................................... 243

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 243

6.2 Basic Considerations.................................................................................................244

6.3 Specific Heat............................................................................................................... 252

6.4 Entropy Changes of Ideal Gas.................................................................................263

6.5 Nonflow Gas Processes ............................................................................................ 269

6.5.1 Constant-Volume Process (Isometric Process)......................................... 269

6.5.2 Constant-Pressure Process (Isobaric Process)..........................................272

6.5.3 Constant-Temperature Process (Isothermal Process) ............................. 274

6.5.4 Constant-Entropy Process (Isentropic Process)....................................... 278

6.5.5 Polytropic Process........................................................................................283

6.6 The Gas Tables ...........................................................................................................290

6.7 Steady-Flow Gas Processes...................................................................................... 295

6.7.1 Constant-Specific Volume Process ............................................................ 296

6.7.2 Constant-Pressure Process ......................................................................... 297

6.7.3 Constant-Temperature Process .................................................................. 297

6.7.4 Isentropic Process ........................................................................................ 297

6.7.5 Polytropic Process........................................................................................299

6.8 Real Gases ..................................................................................................................300

6.9 Frictional Effects........................................................................................................302

6.10 Review ........................................................................................................................303

Key Terms .............................................................................................................................304

Equations Developed in This Chapter..............................................................................305

Questions ..............................................................................................................................307

Problems................................................................................................................................307

7. Mixtures of Ideal Gases .................................................................................................... 317

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 317

7.2 Pressure of a Mixture ............................................................................................... 318

7.3 Volume of a Mixture................................................................................................. 323

7.4 Mixture Composition ............................................................................................... 327

7.5 Thermodynamic Properties of a Gas Mixture......................................................330

7.6 Air–Water Vapor Mixtures ......................................................................................336

7.7 Thermodynamic Properties of Air–Water Vapor Mixtures................................343

7.8 Psychrometric Chart.................................................................................................343

7.9 Air Conditioning.......................................................................................................358

7.10 Review ........................................................................................................................363

Key Terms .............................................................................................................................364

Equations Developed in This Chapter..............................................................................365

Questions ..............................................................................................................................366

Problems................................................................................................................................ 367

8. Vapor Power Cycles............................................................................................................ 373

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 374

8.2 Carnot Cycle .............................................................................................................. 374

8.3 The Rankine Cycle .................................................................................................... 375

x Contents

8.3.1 Process 1–2 ....................................................................................................377

8.3.2 Process 2–3....................................................................................................377

8.3.3 Process 2–4....................................................................................................377

8.3.4 Process 4–5.................................................................................................... 378

8.3.5 Process 5–1.................................................................................................... 379

8.4 Rating of Power-Plant Cycles ..................................................................................384

8.5 The Reheat Cycle .......................................................................................................386

8.6 The Regenerative Cycle ............................................................................................389

8.7 The Steam Generator................................................................................................400

8.8 The Steam Turbine .................................................................................................... 401

8.9 Cogeneration..............................................................................................................403

8.10 Direct Energy Conversion........................................................................................405

8.10.1 Thermoelectrical Converter........................................................................406

8.10.2 Fuel Cell.........................................................................................................407

8.10.3 Thermionic Converter.................................................................................408

8.10.4 Magnetohydrodynamic Generator............................................................409

8.10.5 Solar Energy ................................................................................................. 410

8.10.6 Wind Power.................................................................................................. 412

8.10.7 Waste-to-Energy Resource Recovery........................................................ 415

8.10.8 Geothermal Energy ..................................................................................... 415

8.10.9 Nuclear Power.............................................................................................. 416

8.10.10 Motion-Generated Energy.......................................................................... 416

8.11 Review ........................................................................................................................ 416

Key Terms ............................................................................................................................. 417

Equations Developed in This Chapter.............................................................................. 418

Questions .............................................................................................................................. 418

Problems................................................................................................................................ 419

9. Gas Power Cycles................................................................................................................425

9.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................426

9.2 Air-Standard Analysis of the Otto Cycle............................................................... 431

9.3 Diesel Engine (Compression Ignition Engine)......................................................443

9.4 Air-Standard Analysis of the Diesel Cycle............................................................446

9.5 Automotive Engine Analysis .................................................................................. 451

9.6 Brayton Cycle.............................................................................................................454

9.7 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle Analysis....................................................................456

9.8 The Dual Combustion Cycle (The Dual Cycle).....................................................464

9.9 Stirling Cycle and Ericsson Cycle (Regeneration) ................................................465

9.10 Review ........................................................................................................................466

Key Terms ............................................................................................................................. 467

Equations Developed in This Chapter..............................................................................468

Questions ..............................................................................................................................469

Problems................................................................................................................................469

10. Refrigeration........................................................................................................................ 475

10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 476

10.2 Reversed Carnot Cycle ............................................................................................. 476

10.3 Defined Ratings......................................................................................................... 481

10.4 Refrigeration Cycles..................................................................................................483

Contents xi

10.4.1 Vapor-Compression Cycle ..........................................................................483

10.4.2 Gas-Cycle Refrigeration.............................................................................. 495

10.4.3 Absorption Refrigeration Cycle ................................................................. 501

10.4.4 Vacuum Refrigeration Cycle....................................................................... 501

10.4.5 Thermoelectric Refrigerator.......................................................................504

10.5 Compressors ..............................................................................................................505

10.5.1 Volumetric Efficiency ..................................................................................508

10.6 The Heat Pump.......................................................................................................... 510

10.7 Review ........................................................................................................................ 514

Key Terms ............................................................................................................................. 515

Equations Developed in This Chapter.............................................................................. 515

Questions .............................................................................................................................. 517

Problems................................................................................................................................ 517

11. Heat Transfer....................................................................................................................... 523

11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 524

11.2 Conduction................................................................................................................. 524

11.3 Convection .................................................................................................................543

11.3.1 Natural Convection .....................................................................................545

11.3.2 Forced Convection ....................................................................................... 551

11.4 Radiation ....................................................................................................................556

11.5 Heat Exchangers........................................................................................................566

11.6 Combined Modes of Heat Transfer........................................................................ 579

11.7 Cooling Electronic Equipment................................................................................580

11.8 Analysis of Fins ......................................................................................................... 581

11.9 Heat Pipes...................................................................................................................583

11.10 Review ........................................................................................................................584

Key Terms .............................................................................................................................585

Equations Developed in This Chapter..............................................................................586

Questions .............................................................................................................................. 587

Problems................................................................................................................................588

Appendix 1: Answers to Even-Numbered Problems..........................................................599

Appendix 2: Supplemental Tables.......................................................................................... 617

References ................................................................................................................................... 811

xiii

Preface

It has been over ten years since this textbook was last revised. There have been many

advancements in technology during this time, especially in the area of direct energy con￾version. There has also been a need to expand on concepts in the areas of ideal gas flow,

engine analysis, air conditioning, and heat transfer. This new edition marks a joining with

the Taylor & Francis Group, including CRC Press, to continue what has been a 40-year pro￾cess of providing students with an understanding of basic concepts in thermodynamics.

Specifically, the following material has been added in this eighth edition:

• An emphasis on a system approach to problems

• More discussion of the types of heat and of entropy

• Added explanations for understanding pound mass and the mole

• Analysis of steady-flow gas processes, replacing the compressible flow section

• The concept of paddle work to illustrate how frictional effects can be analyzed

• A clearer discussion of the psychrometric chart and its usage in analyzing air

conditioning systems

• Updates of the status of direct energy conversion systems

• A description of how the cooling tower is utilized in high-rise buildings

• Practical automotive engine analysis

• Expanded Brayton cycle analysis including intercooling, reheat, and regeneration

and their effect on gas turbine efficiency

• A description of fins and how they improve heat transfer rates

• Added illustrative problems and new homework problems

• Availability of a publisher’s website for fluid properties and other reference materials

• Properties of the latest in commercial refrigerants

To make room for these additions, out-of-date photographs have been removed as they

were felt to lend little to the understanding of the basic concepts. Many of these changes

have resulted from the input of reviewers. A special thanks to Professor Herbert Crosby

of the University of Maine and Professor M. David Burghardt of Hofstra University for

supplying new, challenging problems. I thank Professor Mohammad Hossain of York

Technical College for his suggestions.

My thanks to the staff at Taylor & Francis for their help with this new edition: Jonathan

Plant, Arlene Kopeloff, Cynthia Klivecka, Florence Kizza, and especially Amber Donley.

I thank my family, somewhat expanded since the last edition, for their support and encour￾agement: Maris, Karen, Richard, Jennifer, Michaelbarry, Chris, Jaxanna, and Bennett.

Maurice Bluestein

Pompano Beach, Florida