The motor car : Past, present and future

Mechanical Engineering Series

Past, Present and Future

The Motor Car

Giancarlo Genta

Lorenzo Morello

Francesco Cavallino

Luigi Filtri

Mechanical Engineering Series

Editor-in-chief

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The Mechanical Engineering Series features graduate texts and research mono￾graphs to address the need for information in contemporary mechanical engi￾neering, including areas of concentration of applied mechanics, biomechanics,

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Giancarlo Genta • Lorenzo Morello

Francesco Cavallino • Luigi Filtri

The Motor Car

Past, Present and Future

123

Giancarlo Genta

Lorenzo Morello

Francesco Cavallino

Luigi Filtri

Department of Mechanical

and Aerospace Engineering

Politecnico di Torino

Torino

Italy

ISSN 0941-5122 ISSN 2192-063X (electronic)

ISBN 978-94-007-8551-9 ISBN 978-94-007-8552-6 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-8552-6

Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London

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Foreword

Motor vehicles are complex machines and are likely to become more and more

complex in the future. The requirements their designers must satisfy are increas￾ingly demanding and it is possible to state that designing a motor car is one of the

most difficult tasks engineers must face. It is true that there are machines that are

more complex, must operate in a more hostile environment or must satisfy more

demanding requirements (just to mention two examples, a nuclear submarine or a

space shuttle, but the list could be much longer), but what makes the design of a

modern car so difficult is the conflicting nature of the design requirements and the

complex nature of its development and production processes.

A car must supply the required performance in a scenario of changing and more

sophisticated expectation from the customer, satisfying increasingly strict safety,

environmental and energetic standards, at a tag price that is appealing to the

customer, involving acceptable maintenance costs with consistent performance

while being ready to perform its tasks for most of the time, remaining safe even if

misused and not maintained properly (within reasonable limits). All this in a

machine that can be built in large numbers, whose design can survive for a number

of years to reasonable changes in the overall scenario in which cars are manu￾factured and in a market characterized by fierce competition.

In addition, the disciplines involved in designing a car include not only

mechanical and thermal engineering, as obvious, but also styling, a kind of cre￾ative design, marketing, a social science studying the customer’s needs, and

ergonomics, dealing with a wide variety of user interfaces. On the purely manu￾facturing side, the large volume of numerous models requires a multiplicity of

dedicated machines and tightly structured assembly processes, both of which

continue to undergo intensive study by manufacturing engineers.

This situation has become increasingly difficult in the recent years, starting

from the 1970s when new problems, regarding safety, environmental issues, fuel

consumption and market fragmentation emerged, or at least became much more

compelling, driving all manufacturers to introduce innovations that deeply chan￾ged both the product and the way it is designed and manufactured.

In spite of all the forecasts of an end of what has been called ‘the motor car era’,

motor vehicles are still one of the typical features of our age and our society owes

to their widespread use many of its characteristics. In particular, the widespread

use and ownership of small passenger vehicles gives ordinary people a freedom of

v

movement that was earlier unheard of, but also causes a number of problems,

ranging from road accidents to pollution, from traffic jams with related economic

losses to the need for large supplies of liquid, mainly fossil fuels.

The growing diffusion of cars in the twentieth century caused the growth of the

mechanical industry to the point that it was a common opinion that the health of an

industrial economy could be assessed from how well the automotive industry was

faring. Although many voices denouncing the dangers connected with this situa￾tion and announcing the end of the ‘motor car era’ were raised, in particularly

starting from the end of the 1960s, the situation has not changed, and it is easily

predictable that individual mobility will be based on privately owned motor cars

well into the twenty-first century and that the automotive industry will remain one

of the foundations of the economy of developed countries.

The automotive industry proved to be able to innovate and to adapt itself to new

needs and requirements in an ever-changing scenario and the motor car of the first

decade of the twenty-first century is deeply different from the motor car of the

1960s and 1970s. The automotive industry is based on large-scale production, and

as such it has an inertia that prevents changes to be sudden and swift, but this has

not prevented changes to be pursued and implemented, sometimes even at an

unpredictable rate.

These are the reasons why the authors feel that a book about basics of auto￾mobile design and production, as well as the automotive market, would still be

interesting reading and a useful source of information for students and for the

general public.

Self-propelled ground vehicles represented a fairly recent achievement in the

history of technology; except for a few precursors that had little effect on tech￾nology or found practical applications, they did not really appear until quite late in

the industrial revolution. It was only in the nineteenth century that working models

of self-propelled vehicles could be built and they became truly practical only at the

end of the century.

As usual with any technological development, the development of motor

vehicles, particularly in its early phases, can be seen from two conflicting view￾points: one that recognizes discontinuities and one that emphasizes the slow

evolution of ideas and designs. In the first case a number of heroic figures of

inventors and their revolutionary contributions to the technology are described.

Each new step is presented as the result of an original idea, often defined in a

patent, and of the work of an enterprising individual, often one who had to fight

against influential people with opposing views.

The other approach stresses the fact that the development of new technologies

proceeds usually in small steps, by accumulation of infinitesimal changes, and that

in most cases new ideas and solutions are attempted several times, often with small

differences, before being incorporated into the mainstream development of a

product. The patents themselves, as the results of the work of inventors, deal

mostly with small changes and usually the parts of the patents that find practical

application are those dealing with small improvements of previous ideas.

vi Foreword

In this view, it is possible to speak of evolution in the technological field;

indeed since Charles Darwin published his book On the Origins of Species by

Means of Natural Selection in 1859 a parallel is often drawn between biological

evolution and the evolution of technology.

Some historians of technology, like George Basalla,1 support an evolutionary

theory of technological change based on the idea that this is more than just an

analogy. Technological objects have no genes and cannot procreate, thus cannot

transmit their genes to their offspring, but require human intervention in the design

of new machines, carrying over from the old ones most of their features and

introducing the few changes. In this sense, technological evolution is more like the

artificial selection depended upon by farmers and stock-breeders than like natural

selection. After all, the term natural selection used by Darwin was suggested by his

observation of artificial selection.

One of the main strong points of this view is the wide diversification that occurs

when a new technology is developing. This is also the case of automotive tech￾nology and it is amazing to observe the large variety of technical solutions used to

accomplish an assigned function in early cars, in particular if compared with the

almost total standardization in current mechanical products. This proliferation is

often so large that many technical solutions that are thought to be recent inventions

were in reality attempted in old products, only to be eventually discarded. This

may have been due to several reasons, such as the lack of adequate materials, of

analytical techniques allowing development to an operational stage, or of con￾structional techniques allowing implementation in a cost-effective and techno￾logically satisfactory way. In some cases they were even abandoned just because

another alternative appeared to be better without really detailed studies. When

studying the evolution of motor vehicles in the last two centuries, we realize that

almost all architectures presently in use for car components were already con￾ceived during the first years of car history and then abandoned for problems met in

their development.

This diversification followed by the selection of a few configurations is typical

of biological evolution.

A point that introduces an essential difference between biological and tech￾nological evolution is the role that chance has in it. From the beginning of his

studies, Darwin contended that evolution did not imply finality and that changes

occur at random; causality enters the game only in the subsequent stage of

selection. This appears to be quite different from what goes on in technological

changes: the common opinion is that new artifacts are invented (or developed, to

stress more continuity than revolutionary changes) under the pressure of needs,

from the simplest biological ones such as food, shelter, and defense, to the more

sophisticated needs arising in developed societies.

This opinion is however likely to be wrong, at least in most cases. Technology

is mostly not developed as a direct response to human needs; the push as a direct

1 G. Basalla, The evolution of Technology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988.

Foreword vii

response to human needs and the push toward changes are more linked to irrational

factors than to a pondered evaluation of human needs and of the tools suited to

satisfy them. There are a few well-known examples of it, but the best one is that of

the laser, which was defined at the beginning as an ‘invention without an appli￾cation’. After lasers were developed a large number of applications were found

and, if now the mentioned definition seems to be absurd, it was not at the time this

invention was produced.

In the specific field of automotive vehicles, in the second half of the nineteenth

century little need was felt for a self-propelled road transportation vehicle: most

people knew how to ride horses and there were many stables in cities and along

country roads inns with livery could be found almost everywhere. Upper class

homes had spacious courtyards and stables for horses and carriages. Moreover,

early cars were not up to the task of being usable and reliable means of trans￾portation and offered a comfort, reliability, and safety well below the standards of

horse-driven carriages. In this situation motor cars were big-boys’ toys for a small

number of wealthy sportsmen who were ready to face the discomfort and the

dangers the new machine presented as a part of the excitement and the fun it

offered. It was only later, and earlier in the United States than in Europe, that a

more utilitarian use of motor vehicles started and that the very existence of the new

product created a need for it. The trend of replacement of horse-driven vehicles by

cars can be inferred from Fig. 1. In the United States until 1915 there were more

horses than cars, and it was only after World War Two that the motor car became

the predominant road transportation means.

Often the inventor of a technological project has an idea of its possible uses and

applications having little to do with the actual applications that in time will prevail,

and there are many cases in which the invention is produced just for the sake of it,

with no idea of what applications may be.

This randomness makes it particularly difficult to predict future developments

in any field of technology. If predicting the future is always a dangerous exercise,

to do so in the technological field is even worse. An example, that can be amusing,

is what is said in the mentioned book by G. Basalla2 regarding personal computers.

The author states that already in the mid-1980s it was clear that personal com￾puters were a short-lived (and costly for the manufacturers) fad and that those who

bought them, not knowing what to do with a computer and having no need for it,

ended in using them just for videogames, an activity that soon lost all its allure.

The conclusion (drawn in 1988!) was that personal computers had been an utter

failure, that caused the bankrupt of their manufacturers.

Other examples are the many wrong forecasts of the past (supersonic air

transportation, thinking machines, and Moon and Mars colonies within the year

2000, etc.) and the failure to predict technological products that quickly changed

our everyday life (Internet, cell phones, etc.). This is not to say that the technol￾ogies that have not entered our lives will never do so: in particular we likely will

2 G. Basalla, op. cit., p. 260 in the Italian Edition.

viii Foreword

have in the future supersonic air transportation, Moon and Mars colonies and

perhaps even thinking machines, although surely not in the forms and within the

times of past predictions, but to stress how little reliability lies in all the techno￾logical forecasts we so often make.

The same can be said for the future of automotive technology: in the 1950s and

1960s flying cars were expected to materialize in a few decades and the application

of gas turbines to cars and industrial vehicles seemed to be the future of road

transportation. Later electric vehicles, drive-by-wire technologies, and many other

applications of ICT seemed to be at hand, only to be seen as technological dreams

in a shift toward a more indeterminate future.

But in spite of this difficulty in forecasting the paths that will be taken by the

evolution of automotive vehicles in the future, we need to have visions and long￾term projects to inspire research and the development of new ideas and prototypes.

The last part of this book must be read in this context: it is not meant to make

technological predictions that are likely to be wrong, but to discuss the trends of

automotive research and innovation and to see the possible paths that may be taken

to solve the many problems that are at present open or that we can expect for the

future.

Turin, December 2013 Francesco Cavallino

Luigi Filtri

Giancarlo Genta

Lorenzo Morello

Fig. 1 Estimation of the number of horses used for transportation and cars in the United States

from year 1850 to year 2000 (from: J.H. Ausubel, Cities and Their Vital Systems: Infra￾structure—Past, Present and Future, Wiley, New York, 1988)

Foreword ix

References

J.H. Ausubel, Cities and their Vital Systems: Infrastructure—Past, Present and Future (Wiley,

New York, 1988)

G. Basalla, The Evolution of Technology (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988)

x Foreword

Acknowledgments

The authors are pleased to express their gratitude to all the persons who made this

book possible, with their help, their encouragement, and their suggestions.

In particular, Paolo Scolari who had for many years been in charge as Design

and Development Vice-president at Fiat Automobiles. When Fiat and the

Politecnico di Torino decided to cooperate in founding a course in Automotive

Engineering, Paolo Scolari participated in the design activities, giving a

wide personal contribution. In particular, he insisted on including a course on the

historical development of motor vehicles, a course that was later entitled ‘‘Motor

vehicles and their evolution.’’ It was a first-year course, having the aim of intro￾ducing freshmen to the world of the automotive industry, through lectures and

visits to production plants and design and test facilities.

Paolo Scolari was in charge of teaching this course from its institution in 2001,

till his untimely passing away in 2008. He collected much material and wrote notes

for the students, which were distributed in paper form and then as a CD. The

authors, who were his colleagues in their earlier jobs in the automotive industry,

had the pleasure to work with him in the preparation of this course and in writing

the notes which were the starting point for this book.

Nevio Di Giusto, the former Managing Director of Fiat Research Center. Since

the beginning of his involvement in the Automotive Engineering course, he was

particularly aware of the importance of this teaching in generating new human

resources for the future of the automobile and granted the authors all his coop￾eration with suggestions and updated illustration material.

Donatella Biffignandi, in charge of the Information Center of the Automobile

Museum of Torino, and Maurizio Torchio, in charge of the Fiat Historical Center.

They supplied an essential support in the preparation and illustration of the

historical section.

All those who granted their permission to reproduce figures and drawings. The

authors made every effort to seek permission from the original copyright holders of

the figures, and apologize if there are cases where they were not able to achieve

this objective. This is particularly true for some figures that come from the

mentioned notes prepared for the students and for those taken from the Web.

xi

Contents

Part I Past

1 Introduction to Part I................................. 3

2 Body and Car Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.1 Separable Chassis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.2 Partially Integrated Body and Chassis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.3 Unitized Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.4 Aerodynamic Performance Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.5 Vehicle Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3 Chassis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.1 Solid Axle Mechanical Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.2 Independent Suspension Mechanical Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.3 Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.4 Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3.5 Brakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.6 Wheel Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4 Powertrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.1 Combustion Engines Before the Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.2 Automotive Internal Combustion Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

4.2.1 Mechanical Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

4.2.2 Structural Components Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

4.2.3 Carburetors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

4.2.4 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.2.5 Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

4.2.6 Starters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

4.3 Gearboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

4.3.1 Manual Gearbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

4.3.2 Friction Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

4.3.3 Automatic Gearbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

xiii

4.4 Alternative Powertrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

4.4.1 Electric Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

4.4.2 Steam Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

5 The Technologies of Automobiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

5.1 Craft Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

5.1.1 Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

5.1.2 Production Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

5.1.3 Development Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

5.2 Mass Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

5.2.1 Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

5.2.2 Production Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

5.2.3 Development Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

5.3 Lean Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

5.3.1 Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

5.3.2 Production Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

5.3.3 Development Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Part II Present

6 Economic Figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

6.1 Manufacturers and Brands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

6.2 Production and Car Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

6.3 Market Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

6.4 Suppliers of Parts and Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

6.5 Break-Even Point: Prices and Revenues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

6.6 The Sales and Maintenance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

7 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

7.1 Technical Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

7.2 European Type Approval. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

7.3 Environmental Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

7.3.1 Pollution as a Worldwide Concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

7.3.2 Regulated Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

7.3.3 Unregulated Pollutants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

7.3.4 Emission Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

7.3.5 Exhaust Emissions Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

7.3.6 Driving Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

7.3.7 Emissions and Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

7.3.8 Evaporative Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

7.4 Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

7.5 Vehicle Exterior Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

7.6 Vehicle End of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

xiv Contents

7.7 Car Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

7.7.1 Active Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

7.7.2 Passive Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

7.7.3 Crash Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

7.7.4 Pedestrian Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

7.7.5 EURO-NCAP Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

8 Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

8.1 Road Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

8.2 Body Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

8.3 Body Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

8.3.1 The Unibody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

8.3.2 Unibody Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

8.4 The Assembly Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

8.4.1 Dashboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

8.4.2 Door Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

8.4.3 Outer and Inner Additional Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

8.4.4 Headlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

8.4.5 Seats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

8.4.6 Passenger Compartment Safety Devices . . . . . . . . . 249

8.4.7 Climate Control System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

9 Chassis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

9.1 Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

9.1.1 Wheel-Tire Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

9.1.2 Rolling Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

9.1.3 Longitudinal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

9.1.4 Lateral Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

9.1.5 Interaction Between Lateral

and Longitudinal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

9.2 Suspensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

9.2.1 Wheel Characteristic Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

9.2.2 Suspension Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

9.2.3 Suspension Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

9.2.4 Suspension Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

9.2.5 Anti-Roll Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

9.2.6 Shock Absorbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

9.3 Steering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

9.3.1 Screw-and-Sector Steering Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

9.3.2 Rack-and-Pinion Steering Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

9.3.3 Power Steering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

9.4 Braking System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

9.4.1 Service Brake System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

9.4.2 Park Brake System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

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