The handbook of data analysis

T h e Handboo k o f

Data Analysis

Jig V, v ! i X T 000 ' il 08 8. Ii "ft 8 i T i / /'/

;./B »" ' '1 1 ;• : 8H i 8 13; I :.' 1/ ?• * I J, • •

1 ! B 8 ;{ i 10 | 31 1$ $ "V V 1 •' J

•10 1 Bf

0 8 | z , .• , 1 8 | 1110*'" i 1! D 8 ,11 0j m I | p I 0. 8|* I

8 1*8

1 1 18

1 1 I

1 0 8

0 0 t

0 1

8 .8 8

8 I #0 1

1 f 1 0

8 I 11 8

10 111 1

: 11 081 01

i!0 28 81

120- aw 8

Edited by

Meliss a Hard y and

Ala n Bryma n

Handbook of Data Analysis

Advisory Board for the

Handbook of Data Analysis

Mark Becker - University of Minnesota

Kenneth Bollen - University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

Robert Dingwall - University of Nottingham

Martyn Hammersley - Open University

Lawrence Hazelrigg - Florida State University

|an de Leeuw - University of California, Los Angeles

Guillermina |asso - New York University

Raymond M. Lee - Royal Holloway, University of London

Stanley Lieberson - Harvard University

Peter Marsden - Harvard University

Virginia Olesen - University of California, San Francisco

Stanley Wasserman - University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Handbook of Data Analysis

Edited by

Melissa Hardy and Alan Bryman

DAI HOC THAI NGUYEN

TRUNQ TAif HQC LIEU

(DSAG E

Los Angeles I London | New Delhi

Singapore I Washington DC

Editorial arrangement and Introduction

© Melissa Hardy and Alan Bryman 2004, 2009

Chapter 1 © Melissa Hardy and Alan Bryman 2004

Chapter 2 © Alan Bryman and Duncan Cramer 2004

Chapter 3 © Melissa Hardy 2004, 2009

Chapter 4 © Lawrence Hazelrigg 2004, 2009

Chapter 5 © Mortaza Jamshidian 2004

Chapter 6 © Mary Maynard 2004

Chapter 7 © Dennis Smith 2004

Chapter 8 © Ross M. Stolzenberg 2004

Chapter 9 © Melissa Hardy and John Reynolds 2004

Chapter 10 © James Jaccard and Tonya Dodge 2004

Chapter 11 © J. Scott Long and Simon Cheng 2004

Chapter 12 © Douglas L. Anderton and

Eric Cheney 2004

Chapter 13 © Nancy Brandon Tuma 2004

Chapter 14 © Trond Petersen 2004, 2009

Chapter 15 © Guang Guo and John Hipp 2004

Chapter 16 © Paul Allison 2004

Chapter 17 © Heather Maclndoe and Andrew

Abbott 2004, 2009

First published 2004

This paperback edition first published 2009

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or

private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under he

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication

may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or

by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of

the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction,

in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the

Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning

reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers

SAGE Publications Ltd

1 Oliver's Yard

55 City Road

London EC1Y ISP

SAGE Publications Inc.

2455 Teller Road

Thousand Oaks, California 91320

SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd

B 1/1 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area

Mathura Road

New Delhi 110 044

SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd

33 Pekin Street #02-01

FaSingapor r East Square Library of Congress Control Number: 2008926859 British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from ISBN 978-1 -84860-116-1 (pbk) Typeset by C&M Digitals (P) Ltd., Chennai, India thPrinte e Britis d ienh 04876Indi Librar a a3 yt Replika Press Pvt Ltd

Chapter 18 © Vincent Kang Fu, Christopher

Winship and Robert D Mare 2004. 2009

Chapter 19 © Jodie B. Ullman and

Peter M. Bender 2004

Chapter 20 © William Browne and

Jon Rasbash 2004, 2009

Chapter 21 © Christopher Winship and Michael

Sobel 2004

Chapter 22 © Ronald L. Breiger 2004

Chapter 23 © Raymond M. Lee and

Nigel G. Fielding 2004, 2009

Chapter 24 © Roberto P. Franzosi 2004, 2009

Chapter 25 © Peter K. Manning 2004

Chapter 26 © Steven E dayman and

Virginia Teas Gill 2004, 2009

Chapter 27 © Jonathan Potter 2004

Chapter 28 © Nick Pidgeon and Karen

Henwood 2004, 2009

Chapter 29 © Barbara Czamiawska 2004, 2009

Chapter 30 © Sara Delamont and Paul

Atkinson 2004

Contents

Preface vii

Notes on Contributors ix

1 Introduction: Common Threads among

Techniques of Data Analysis 1

Melissa Hardy and Alan Bryman

Part I Foundations 15

2 Constructing Variables ] 7

Alan Bryman and Duncan Cramer

3 Summarizing Distributions 35

Melissa Hardy

4 Inference 65

Lawrence Hazelrigg

5 Strategies for Analysis of Incomplete Data 113

Mortaza Jamshidian

6 Feminist Issues in Data Analysis 131

Mary Maynard

7 Historical Analysis 147

Dennis Smith

Part II The General Linear Model and Extensions 163

8 Multiple Regression Analysis 165

Ross M. Stolzenberg

9 Incorporating Categorical Information into

Regression Models: The Utility of Dummy Variables 209

Melissa Hardy and John Reynolds

10 Analyzing Contingent Effects in Regression Models 237

James Jaccard and Tonya Dodge

11 Regression Models for Categorical Outcomes 259

J. Scott Long and Simon Cheng

12 Log-Linear Analysis 285

Douglas L. Andenon and Eric Cheney

Part III Longitudinal Models 307

13 Modeling Change 309

Nancy Brandon Tuma

vi HANDBOOK OF DATA ANALYSIS

14 Analyzing Panel Data: Fixed- and Random-Effects Models 331

Trond Petersen

15 Longitudinal Analysis for Continuous Outcomes:

Random Effects Models and Latent Trajectory Models

34 7

Guang Guo and John Hipp

16 Event History Analysis 369

Paul Allison

17 Sequence Analysis and Optimal Matching

Techniques for Social Science Data 387

Heather Maclndoe and Andrew Abbott

Part IV New Developments in Modeling 407

18 Sample Selection Bias Models 409

Vincent Kang Fu, Christopher Winship and Robert D. Mare

19 Structural Equation Modeling 431

Jodie B. Ullman and Peter M. Bender

20 Multilevel Modelling 459

William Browne and Jon Rasbash

21 Causal Inference in Sociological Studies 481

Christopher Winship and Michael Sobel

22 The Analysis of Social Networks 505

Ronald L. Breiger

Part V Analyzing Qualitative Data 527

23 Tools for Qualitative Data Analysis 529

Raymond M. Lee and Nigel G. Fielding

24 Content Analysis 547

Roberto P. Franzosi

25 Semiotics and Data Analysis 567

Peter K. Manning

26 Conversation Analysis 589

Steven E. dayman and Virginia Teas Gill

27 Discourse Analysis 607

Jonathan Potter

28 Grounded Theory 625

Nick Pidgeon and Karen Henwood

29 The Uses of Narrative in Social Science Research 649

Barbara Czamiawska

30 Qualitative Research and the Postmodern Turn 667

Sara Delamont and Paul Atkinson

Appendix. Areas of the Standard Normal Distribution 683

Index 685

Preface

As is the case with any edited text, this book represents the culmination of exchanges

with authors past and present. We are fortunate to have persuaded so many well￾established data analysts to contribute chapters. Their investment of time and thought

is reflected in the quality of the discussions that fill these pages. We are most appre￾ciative of the support and assistance we received from Sage and would like to give

special thanks to Chris Rojek, Kay Bridger and Ian Antcliff. We would like to thank

Richard Leigh for his meticulous copyediting, which has greatly improved the book.

We would also like to thank the members of our Advisory Board and several collea￾gues who provided us with advice on chapters, Chardie Baird who helped manage the

multiple drafts and reviews, and our spouses for their support and encouragement.

Our intention was to put together a set of resource chapters that described major

techniques of data analysis and addressed noteworthy issues involved in their appli￾cation. The list of techniques included here is not exhaustive, but we did try to cover

a wide range of approaches while providing reference to an even broader set of meth￾ods. With that in mind, we decided to include techniques appropriate to data of

different sorts, including survey data, textual data, transcripts of conversations, and

longitudinal information. Regardless of the format of the original data, analysis

requires researchers to develop coding schemes, classification protocols, definitional

rules, and procedures for ensuring reliability in the application of all of these tools.

How researchers organize the information they will use in their analyses should be

informed by theoretical concerns. Even so, this process of organization is also one of

creation and, as such, it can be accomplished in a variety of ways and analyzed by

different approaches.

Data analysts must concern themselves with the criteria they use to sort between

the systematic component of their observations and the stochastic elements, or ran￾dom influences, that are also reflected in these observations. The randomness of

events is something we acknowledge, but we often behave as though we can exert

considerable control over the way our lives unfold.

That point is often driven home in unanticipated ways. During the time we dedi￾cated to the production of this book, we made frequent adjustments to modify a

once reasonable schedule that had become impossible to meet. These unanticipated

events reflect the fabric of people's lives, and forecasting life's events that would

occur a year or two into the future was sometimes tragically inaccurate. Prominent

among our initial list of authors were Lee Lillard and Aage Sorensen, both greatly

respected by the scientific community, admired by their peers, and loved by their

friends and families. Both men died unexpectedly while this volume was under way.

We make note here of the substantial contributions they made to this field of