The Audio Expert

The Audio Expert

The Audio Expert is a comprehensive reference book covering all aspects of

audio, with both practical and theoretical explanations. It is written for people

who want to understand audio at the deepest, most technical level, but without

needing an engineering degree. The Audio Expert explains how audio really

works in much more depth than usual, using common sense plain-English

explanations and mechanical analogies, with minimal math. It uses an easy to

read conversational tone, and includes more than 400 figures and photos to

augment the printed text.

However, this book goes beyond merely explaining how audio works. It brings

together the concepts of audio, aural perception, musical instrument physics,

acoustics, and basic electronics, showing how they’re intimately related. It also

describes in great detail many practices and techniques used by recording and

mixing engineers, including video production and computers. This book is meant

for intermediate to advanced recording engineers and audiophiles who want to

become experts. There’s plenty for beginners too.

One unique feature is explaining how audio devices such as equalizers,

compressors, and A/D converters work internally, and how they’re spec’d and

tested, rather than merely describing how to use them. There’s plenty of myth￾busting and consumerism too. The book doesn’t tell readers what brand power

amplifier to buy, but it explains in great detail what defines a good amplifier so

people can choose a first-rate model wisely without over-paying.

Most explanations throughout the book are platform-agnostic, applying equally

to Windows and Mac computers, and to most software and hardware. Many

audio and video examples are included to enhance the written text.

The new edition offers many updates and improvements throughout. New

sections on coding an equalizer, comparing microphone preamps, testing results

of loudspeaker isolation devices, new online video content on music theory, plus

incorporated chapters on MIDI basics, computers, video production, plus new

myth-busters, and much more!

Ethan Winer has, at various times, earned a living as a professional musician,

computer programmer, circuit designer, recording engineer, composer/arranger,

technical writer, acoustician, and college instructor. Ethan has more than 150

feature articles published in various computer and audio magazines. He has

produced dozens of educational and music videos, and composed three pieces for

full orchestra, all of which have been performed. He now co-owns RealTraps, a

manufacturer of acoustic treatment.

The Audio Expert

Everything You Need to Know About Audio

Second Edition

Ethan Winer

Second edition published 2018

by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2018 Taylor & Francis

The right of Ethan Winer to be identified as author of this work has been asserted

by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and

Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now

known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any

information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the

publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent

to infringe.

First edition published by Focal Press in 2012.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-0-415-78883-0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-78884-7 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-22316-2 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Visit the companion website: www.TheAudioExpertBook.com/

www.routledge.com/cw/winer

For my Wife, Ilene,

who for reasons I’ll never understand has

stuck with me for more than 40 years.

Contents

Acknowledgments

About the Author

Introduction

Bonus Web Content

Part 1 Audio Defined

Chapter 1: Audio Basics

Volume and Decibels

Standard Signal Levels

Signal Levels and Metering

Calculating Decibels

Frequencies

Graphing Audio

Standard Octave and Third-Octave Bands

Filters

Phase Shift and Time Delay

Comb Filtering

Fourier and the Fast Fourier Transform

Sine Waves, Square Waves, and Pink Noise—Oh My!

Resonance

Audio Terminology

The Null Test

Summary

Chapter 2: Audio Fidelity, Measurements, and Myths

High Fidelity Defined

The Four Parameters

Lies, Damn Lies, and Audio Gear Specs

Test Equipment

Audio Transparency

Common Audio Myths

The Stacking Myth

Myth-Information

The Big Picture

Summary

Chapter 3: Hearing, Perception, and Artifact Audibility

Fletcher-Munson and the Masking Effect

Distortion and Noise

Jitter

Audibility Testing

Dither and Truncation Distortion

Hearing Below the Noise Floor

Frequency Response Changes

Ultrasonics

Ringing

Aliasing

Phase Shift

Absolute Polarity

Ears Are Not Linear!

Blind Testing

Calibrate the Preamp Gain Controls

Prepare and Play the Tracks

Psychoacoustic Effects

Placebo Effect and Expectation Bias

When Subjectivists Are (Almost) Correct

Summary

Chapter 4: Gozintas and Gozoutas

Audio Signals

Audio Wiring

Audio Connectors

Patch Panels

Impedance

Summary

Part 2 Analog and Digital Recording, Processing, and Methods

Chapter 5: Mixers, Buses, Routing, and Summing

Solo, Mute, and Channel Routing

Buses and Routing

Console Automation

Other Console Features

Digital Audio Workstation Software and Mixing

The Pan Law

Connecting a Digital Audio Workstation to a Mixer

Inputs and Outputs

Setting Record Levels

Monitoring with Effects

The Windows Mixer

Related Digital Audio Workstation Advice

5.1 Surround Sound Basics

Summing

Gain Staging

Microphone Preamplifiers

Preamp Input Impedance

Preamp Noise

Clean and Flat Is Where It’s At

Summary

Chapter 6: Recording Devices and Methods

Recording Hardware

Analog Tape Recording

Tape Bias

Tape Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis

Sel-Sync

Tape Noise Reduction

Tape Pre-Distortion

The Failings of Analog Tape

Digital Recording

In the Box versus Out of the Box

Record Levels

The Myth of Low Levels

Recording Methods

Specific Advice on Digital Audio Workstations

Copy Protection

Microphone Types and Methods

Micing Techniques

The 3-to-1 Rule

Microphone Placement

DI = Direct Injection

Additional Recording Considerations

Advanced Recording Techniques

Vari-Speed

Summary

Chapter 7: Mixing Devices and Methods

Volume Automation

Editing

Basic Music Mixing Strategies

Be Organized

Monitor Volume

Reference Mixes

Panning

Getting the Bass Right

Avoid Too Much Reverb

Verify Your Mixes

Thin Your Tracks

Distance and Depth

Bus versus Insert

Pre and Post, Mute and Solo

Room Tone

Perception Is Fleeting

Be Creative!

In the Box versus Out of the Box—Yes, Again

Using Digital Audio Workstation Software

Slip-Editing and Cross-Fading

Track Lanes

Normalizing

Editing and Comping

Rendering the Mix

Who’s on First?

Time Alignment

Editing Music

Editing Narration

Re-Amping

Backward Audio

Mastering

Save Your Butt

Summary

Chapter 8: Digital Audio Basics

Sampling Theory

Quantization

Sample Rate and Bit Depth

The Reconstruction Filter

Oversampling

Bit Depth

Pulse-Code Modulation versus Direct Stream Digital

Digital Notation

Sample Rate and Bit Depth Conversion

Dither and Jitter

External Clocks

Digital Converter Internals

Bit-Rate

Digital Signal Processing

Latency

Floating Point Math

Early Digital

Digital Audio Quality

Digital Timing

Summary

Chapter 9: Dynamics Processors

Compressors and Limiters

Using a Compressor

Common Pitfalls

Multi-band Compressors

Noise Gates and Expanders

Noise Gate Tricks

Expanders

But …

Dynamics Processor Special Techniques

Other Dynamics Processors

Compressor Internals

Time Constants

Summary

Chapter 10: Frequency Processors

Equalizer Types

All Equalizers (Should) Sound the Same

Digital Equalizers

EQ Techniques

Boosting versus Cutting

Common EQ Frequencies

Mixes That Sound Great Loud

Complementary EQ

Mid/Side Equalization

Extreme EQ

Linear Phase Equalizers

Equalizer Internals

Other Frequency Processors

Summary

Chapter 11: Time Domain Processors

Echo

Reverb

Phasers and Flangers

Summary

Chapter 12: Pitch and Time Manipulation Processors

Pitch Shifting Basics

Auto-Tune and Melodyne

Acidized Wave Files

Summary

Chapter 13: Other Audio Processors

Tape-Sims and Amp-Sims

Other Distortion Effects

Software Noise Reduction

Other Processors

Vocal Removal

Ring Modulators

Summary

Chapter 14: Synthesizers

Analog versus Digital Synthesizers

Additive versus Subtractive Synthesis

Voltage Control

Sound Generators

Modulators

Filters

MIDI Keyboards

Beyond Presets

Alternate Controllers

Samplers

Software Synthesizers and Samplers

Sample Libraries

Creating Sample Libraries

Key and Velocity Switching

Sampler Bank Architecture

FM Synthesis

Physical Modeling

Granular Synthesis

Prerendering

Algorithmic Composition

Notation Software

Summary

Chapter 15: MIDI Basics

MIDI Internal Details

MIDI Hardware

MIDI Channels and Data

MIDI Data Transmission

General MIDI

Standard MIDI Files

MIDI Clock Resolution

MIDI Minutiae

Playing and Editing MIDI

Summary

Part 3 Video Production

Chapter 16: Video Production

Video Production Basics

Live Concert Example

Color Correction

Synchronizing Video to Audio

Panning and Zooming

Video Transitions

Key Frames

Orchestra Example

Cello Rondo and Tele-Vision Examples

Backgrounds

Time-Lapse Video

Media File Formats

Lighting

Summary

Part 4 Transducers

Chapter 17: Microphones and Pickups

Microphone Types

Dynamic Microphones

Dynamic Directional Patterns

Ribbon Microphones

Condenser Microphones

Condenser Directional Patterns

Other Microphone Types

Phantom Power

Microphone Specs

Measuring Microphone Response

Microphone Modeling

Guitar Pickups and Vibrating Strings

Summary

Chapter 18: Loudspeakers and Earphones