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Water Pollution Control - A Guide to the Use of Water

Quality Management Principles

Edited by

Richard Helmer and Ivanildo Hespanhol

Published on behalf of

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

Water Supply & Sanitation Collaborative Council

World Health Organization

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First edition 1997

© 1997 WHO/UNEP

Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk

ISBN 0 419 22910 8

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Water Pollution Control

A guide to the use of water quality management principles

1997, 526 pages

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Table of Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Chapter 1 - Policy and Principles

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Policy framework

1.3 Guiding principles for water pollution control

1.4 Strategy formulation

1.5 References

Chapter 2 - Water Quality Requirements

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Why water quality criteria and objectives?

2.3 Water quality criteria for individual use categories

2.4 Water quality objectives

2.5 Conclusions and recommendations

2.6 References

Chapter 3 - Technology Selection

3.1 Integrating waste and water management

3.2 Wastewater origin, composition and significance

3.3 Wastewater management

3.4 Pollution prevention and minimisation

3.5 Sewage conveyance

3.6 Costs, operation and maintenance

3.7 Selection of technology

3.8 Conclusions and recommendations

3.9 References

Chapter 4 - Wastewater as a Resource

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Types of reuse

4.3 Implementing or upgrading agricultural reuse systems

4.4 Technical aspects of health protection

4.5 Conclusions and recommendations

4.6 References

Chapter 5 - Legal and Regulatory Instruments

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Inventories for pollution control

5.3 Derivation of standards for point sources

5.4 Regulation of point sources

5.5 Non-point source pollution

5.6 Groundwater protection

5.7 Transboundary pollution

5.8 Conclusions

5.9 References

Chapter 6 - Economic Instruments

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Why use economic instruments?

6.3 Applying economic instruments

6.4 Choosing between instruments

6.5 Application in developing countries

6.6 Conclusions

6.7 References

Chapter 7 - Financing Wastewater Management

7.1 Introduction

7.2 The challenges of urban sanitation

7.3 The financial challenges

7.4 Strategic planning and policies for sustainable sanitation services

7.5 Conclusions

7.6 References

Chapter 8 - Institutional Arrangements

8.1 Introduction

8.2 The water pollution control sub-sector

8.3 Institutions and organisations

8.4 Criteria and determinants

8.5 Examples of institutional arrangements

8.6 Capacity building

8.7 Conclusions

8.8 References

Chapter 9 - Information Systems

9.1 Introduction

9.2 The importance of integration

9.3 Specifying information needs

9.4 Information gathering and dissemination

9.5 From data to information tools

9.6 Design of monitoring networks and selection of variables

9.7 Monitoring technology

9.8 References

Chapter 10 - Framework for Water Pollution Control

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Initial analysis of water quality problems

10.3 Establishing objectives for water pollution control

10.4 Management tools and instruments

10.5 Action plan for water pollution control

10.6 References

Case Study I - The Ganga, India

I.1 Introduction

I.2 The Ganga river

I.3 The Ganga Action Plan

I.4 Implementation problems

I.5 River water quality monitoring

I.6 The future

I.7 Conclusions and lessons learned

I.8 Recommendations

I.9 Source literature

Case Study II - Shanghai Huangpu River, China

II.1 Introduction

II.2 Background information

II.3 Institutional development and industrial pollution control

II.4 Pollution control strategy for the Huangpu River

II.5 Other major measures used in cleaning the Huangpu River

II.6 Conclusions

II.7 References

Case Study III - The Pasig River, Philippines

III.1 Country profile

III.2 Basin identification

III.3 Pre-intervention situation

III.4 The intervention scenario

III.5 Lessons learned, constraints and opportunities

III.6 Conclusions and recommendations

Case Study IV - Nigeria

IV.1 Introduction

IV.2 National environmental policy

IV.3 Water resources management

IV.4 Industrial water pollution control programme

IV.5 Conclusions

IV.6 References

Case Study V - The Witbank Dam Catchment

V.1 Introduction

V.2 Background information

V.3 The Witbank Dam catchment

V.4 Pre-intervention situation

V.5 Intervention with a new approach

V.6 Shortcomings of the approach

V.7 Conclusions

V.8 References

Case Study VI - The Upper Tietê Basin, Brazil

VI.1 Introduction

VI.2 The metropolitan region of São Paulo

VI.3 Pre-intervention situation

VI.4 The Tietê Project

VI.5 Industrial wastewater management

VI.6 Conclusions

VI.7 References

Case Study VII - The Mezquital Valley, Mexico

VII.1 Introduction

VII.2 The Mezquital Valley

VII.3 Pre-intervention situation

VII.4 Intervention scenario

VII.5 Lessons learned, constraints and opportunities

VII.6 Conclusions and recommendations

VII.7 References

Case Study VIII - Lerma-Chapala Basin, Mexico

VIII.1 Introduction

VIII.2 The Lerma-Chapala basin

VIII.3 Pre-intervention situation

VIII.4 Intervention scenario

VIII.5 Conclusions and lessons for the future

VIII.6 Final reflections

Case Study IX - The Danube Basin

IX.1 Introduction

IX.2 Economic activities in the basin

IX.3 The Environmental Programme for the Danube river basin

IX.4 The strategic action plan

IX.5 Problems and priorities

IX.6 Strategic directions

IX.7 Conclusions

IX.8 References

Case Study X - Moscow Region, Russia

X.1 Introduction

X.2 Description of the region

X.3 Water systems

X.4 Water resources assessment

X.5 Pollution sources

X.6 Major problems

X.7 The programme

X.8 International co-operation

X.9 Conclusion

X.10 References

Case Study XI - Cyprus

XI.1 Introduction

XI.2 Water resources

XI.3 Measures to conserve and replenish groundwater

XI.4 Direct use of treated wastewater for irrigation

XI.5 Pollution of water resources

XI.6 Conclusions and recommendations

XI.7 References

Case Study XII - Kingdom of Jordan

XII.1 Introduction

XII.2 General information on Jordan and Greater Amman

XII.3 Wastewaters and water pollution control

XII.4 Existing major wastewater management problems and needs

XII.5 Management solution alternatives

XII.6 Recommendations and possible results

XII.7 References

Case Study XIII - Sana'a, Yemen

XIII.1 Introduction

XIII.2 Water issues

XIII.3 Planned interventions

XIII.4 Lessons learned and conclusions

XIII.5 References

Appendix - Participants in the Working Group

Water Pollution Control

Water Pollution Control - A Guide to the Use of Water Quality Management

Principles

Edited by Richard Helmer and Ivanildo Hespanhol

Published on behalf of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Water Supply &

Sanitation Collaborative Council and the World Health Organization by E. & F. Spon

© 1997 WHO/UNEP

ISBN 0 419 22910 8

Foreword

Publication of this book is a milestone for the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative

Council. It demonstrates the Council's unique capacity to bring together water and

sanitation professionals from industrialised and developing countries to formulate

practical guidance on a key issue of the day.

Industrialised countries have extensive experience of the problems caused by water

pollution and the strategies and technologies available to control it. In the developing

world, although pollution is increasing rapidly with urbanisation and industrialisation,

most countries have very limited experience of pollution control measures or of the

institutional and legislative frameworks needed to make such measures effective. On the

other hand, the Collaborative Council's developing country members have the specialist

knowledge and skills with which to adapt the practices of the industrialised nations to

their own circumstances.

This synergy among members is at the heart of the Council's approach to sector issues.

By mandating specialist working groups to seek out good practices, to analyse them and

to reach agreement on the best way forward, the Council is able to give its members

authoritative guidance and tools to help them face their own particular challenges.

Water pollution control is clearly one of the most critical of those challenges. Without

urgent and properly directed action, developing countries face mounting problems of

disease, environmental degradation and economic stagnation, as precious water

resources become more and more contaminated. At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro

in June 1992, world leaders recognised the crucial importance of protecting freshwater

resources. Chapter 18 of Agenda 21 sees "effective water pollution prevention and

control programmes" as key elements of national sustainable development plans.

At its second Global Forum, in Rabat, Morocco, in 1993, the Collaborative Council

responded to the Rio accord by mandating a Working Group on Water Pollution Control,

convened jointly with the World Health Organization and the United Nations Environment

Programme. We were fortunate that Richard Helmer from the World Health Organization

agreed to co-ordinate the Working Group. Richard had been a prime mover in the

preparation of the freshwater initiatives endorsed in Rio de Janeiro and so was

particularly well placed to ensure that the Group's deliberations were well directed.

Experts from developing countries, UN agencies, bilaterals, professional associations,

and academic institutions have all contributed over the last three and a half years. The

Council is grateful to them, and I want to express my own personal appreciation for the

voluntary time and effort they have devoted to the task.

The result is a comprehensive guidebook which I know will be a valuable tool for policy

makers and environmental managers in developing and newly industrialised countries as

they seek to combat the damaging health, environmental and economic impacts of water

pollution. The council will play its part in advocacy and promotion. We all owe a duty to

future generations to safeguard their water supplies and to protect their living

environment.

Margaret Catley-Carlson,

Chair, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council

Water Pollution Control - A Guide to the Use of Water Quality Management

Principles

Edited by Richard Helmer and Ivanildo Hespanhol

Published on behalf of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Water Supply &

Sanitation Collaborative Council and the World Health Organization by E. & F. Spon

© 1997 WHO/UNEP

ISBN 0 419 22910 8

Acknowledgements

The co-sponsoring organisations would like to express their deep gratitude to all of those

whose efforts made the preparation of this guidebook possible, through contributions to

chapters, review of drafts, active participation in the working group process, or financial

support to meetings, editorial work, etc.

The work was directed by a core group of staff from the World Health Organization

(WHO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Centre

for Human Settlements (UNCHS), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations (FAO) and experts from bilateral agencies who are members of the Water

Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, WHO collaborating centres and experts

from developing and newly industrialising countries. The activities have been

implemented together with UNEP, the Danish Water Quality Institute (VKI), the Institute

for Inland Water Management and Wastewater Treatment in the Netherlands (RIZA), the

International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering of the

Netherlands (IHE), the World Bank, the WHO Collaborating Centre for Water Quality

Control, and the WHO European Centre for Environment and Health/Nancy Project

Office. Other international organisations, in particular the International Association for

Water Quality (IAWQ) and the International Water Resources Association (IWRA) have

provided support to the Working Group. Additional support has also been received from

bilateral and other external support agencies, particularly the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs/DGIS of the Netherlands. Financial support for the activities undertaken by the

Working Group has been provided by UNEP and by the Government of the Netherlands.

The Working Group brought together a group of experts who contributed individually or

collectively to the different parts of the book. It is difficult to identify adequately the

contribution of each individual author and therefore the principal contributors are listed

together below:

Martin Adriaanse, Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment

(RIZA), Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Lelystad, The

Netherlands (Chapter 9)

Guy J.F.R. Alaerts, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA formerly at International

Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering (IHE), Delft, The

Netherlands (Chapters 3 and 8)

Mohamed Al-Hamdi, Sana'a University Support Project, Sana'a, Yemen currently Ph.D.

fellow at the International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental

Engineering, Delft, The Netherlands (Case Study XIII)

Humberto Romero Alvarez, Consultivo Técnico, National Water Commission, Mexico,

D.F., Mexico (Case Studies VII and VIII)

Lawrence Chidi Anukam, Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA), Abuja,

Nigeria (Case Study IV)

Carl R. Bartone, Urban Development Division, World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA

(Chapter 7)

Janis Bernstein, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA (Chapter 6)

M. Bijlsma, International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental

Engineering (IHE), Delft, The Netherlands (Chapter 3)

Benedito Braga, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Escola Politécnica

da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil (Case Study VI)

S. Andrew P. Brown, Wates, Meiring & Barnard, Halfway House, South Africa (Case

Study V)

Peter A. Chave, Pollution Control, Bristol, UK formerly of National Rivers Authority,

Bristol, UK (Chapter 5)

Renato Tantoco Cruz, River Rehabilitation Secretariat, Pasig River Rehabilitation

Program, Carl Bro International a/s, Quezon City, Philippines (Case Study III)

Rainer Enderlein, Environment and Human Settlement Division, United Nations

Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva, Switzerland (Chapter 2)

Ute Enderlein, formerly Urban Environmental Health, Division of Operational Support in

Environmental Health, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (Chapter 2)

Roberto Max Hermann, Department of Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, Escola

Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil (Case Study VI)

Ivanhildo Hespanhol, Department of Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, Escola

Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil, formerly of Urban

Environmental Health, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (Chapter 4)

Niels H. Ipsen, Water Quality Institute (VKI), Danish Academy of Technical Sciences,

Hørsholm, Denmark (Chapters 1 and 10)

Henrik Larsen, Water Quality Institute (VKI), Danish Academy of Technical Sciences,

Hørsholm, Denmark (Chapters 1 and 10)

Palle Lindgaard-Jørgensen, Water Quality Institute (VKI), Danish Academy of Technical

Sciences, Hørsholm, Denmark (Chapter 9)

José Eduardo Mestre Rodríguez, Bureau for River Basin Councils, National Water

Commission, Mexico, D.F., Mexico (Case Study VIII)

Ilya Natchkov, Ministry of Environment, Sofia, Bulgaria (Case Study IX)

Ioannis Papadopoulos, Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural

Resources and Environment, Nicosia, Cyprus (Case Study XI)

Herbert C. Preul, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of

Cincinnati, Cincinnati, USA (Case Study XII)

Yogesh Sharma, formerly National River Conservation Directorate, Ministry of

Environment and Forests, New Delhi, India (Case Study I)

Lars Ulmgren, Stockholm Vatten, Stockholm, Sweden (Chapter 1)

Siemen Veenstra, International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental

Engineering (IHE), Delft, The Netherlands (Chapter 3)

Vladimir Vladimirov, CPPI Water Component, c/o Centre for International Projects,

Moscow, Russian Federation (Case Study X)

W. Peter Williams, Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre (MARC), King's

College London, London, UK (Chapter 2)

Chongua Zhang, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA (Case Study II)

Chapter 7 draws heavily on the work and accumulated experiences of the Water and

Sanitation Division of the World Bank, and of the environment team of the Urban

Development Division and the UNDP/UNCHS/World Bank Urban Management

Programme. The author is particularly indebted to John Briscoe, K.C. Sivaramakrishnan

and Vijay Jagannathan for their comments and contributions.

Case Study I was an outcome of the initiative of Professor Dr Ir G.J.F.R. Alaerts of IHE,

Delft who provided encouragement and invaluable guidance for which the author is

grateful. The leadership and kind support of Mr Vinay Shankar, formerly Project Director

of the Ganga Project, in allowing the case study to be produced is also gratefully

acknowledged.

The advice and assurance of the Programme Coordination Unit for the Danube

Programme based in Vienna and it's Team Leader Mr. David Rodda, is acknowledged in

the preparation of Case Study IX. The views expressed in the case study are those of

the author and do not necessarily represent those of the Task Force or any of its

members.

The basic information and data for Case Study XII were gathered for the development of

a Water Management and Conservation Plan for the country of Jordan by the author, in

the year 1992, during a consulting assignment with the Chemonics International

Consulting Division, Inc. of Washington, D.C. under a contract with the US Agency for

International Development USAID). The assistance of others connected with the project

is gratefully acknowledged. The views and opinions cited in this case study are those of

the author and the named references and do not necessarily reflect the views and

opinion or policies of USAID.

The draft text for this book was reviewed by the Working Group members through

meetings and written comments and amendments. The broad range of issues and the

wide geographical scope covered by the Working Group can best be demonstrated

through complete listings of all members as given in the Appendix. In this way the co￾sponsoring agencies and the editors would like to express their great appreciation for the

dedication given by all participants to this project. The book would, however, not have

been possible without the editorial assistance of Dr Deborah Chapman who undertook

technical and language editing as well as layout and production management, in

collaboration with the publisher. As the editor of the UNEP/WHO co-sponsored series of

guidebooks dealing with various aspects of water quality management, she was

responsible for ensuring compatibility with Water Quality Assessments and Water

Quality Monitoring, two of the other books in the series.

Water Pollution Control - A Guide to the Use of Water Quality Management

Principles

Edited by Richard Helmer and Ivanildo Hespanhol

Published on behalf of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Water Supply &

Sanitation Collaborative Council and the World Health Organization by E. & F. Spon

© 1997 WHO/UNEP

ISBN 0 419 22910 8

Chapter 1* - Policy and Principles

* This chapter was prepared by H. Larsen, N.H. Ipsen and L. Ulmgren

1.1 Introduction

During recent years there has been increasing awareness of, and concern about, water

pollution all over the world, and new approaches towards achieving sustainable

exploitation of water resources have been developed internationally. It is widely agreed

that a properly developed policy framework is a key element in the sound management

of water resources. A number of possible elements for such policies have been identified,

especially during the preparation of Agenda 21 as well as during various follow up

activities.

This chapter proposes some general principles for the policy making process and for

policy document structure. Some examples of policy elements which support the overall

sustainable management of water resources are also given.

1.2 Policy framework

Policy statements regarding water pollution control can be found within the legislative

framework of most countries. However, the statements are often "hidden" in official

documents, such as acts of government, regulations, action and master plans. Moreover,

government statutes and constitutional documents often include paragraphs about

environmental policies. Such statements are rarely coherent, and inconsistencies with

other policies often exist because they have been developed separately with different

purposes.

Water pollution control is usually specifically addressed in connection with the

establishment of environmental legislation and action plans, but also within the

framework of water resources management planning. Moreover, documents related to

public health aspects may also consider water pollution. These three interacting areas

are often administered in different line ministries - typically a Ministry of Environment, a

Ministry of Water and a Ministry of Health. In addition, the policy making process, if it

exists, may often take place independently.