Tài liệu The Psychology of Emotion Fifth edition pptx

The Psychology of

Emotion

Fifth edition

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

The Psychology of

Emotion

Fifth edition

From Everyday Life to Theory

K. T. Strongman

Department of Psychology, University of Canterbury

Christchurch, New Zealand

Copyright # 2003 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,

West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England

Telephone (þ44) 1243 779777

Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): [email protected]

Visit our Home Page on www.wileyeurope.com or www.wiley.com

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and

Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency

Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of

the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher should be addressed to the Permissions Department,

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ,

England, or emailed to [email protected], or faxed to (þ44) 1243 770620.

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to

the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged

in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is

required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Other Wiley Editorial Offices

John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

Jossey-Bass, 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741, USA

Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Boschstr. 12, D-69469 Weinheim, Germany

John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, 33 Park Road, Milton, Queensland 4064, Australia

John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2 Clementi Loop #02-01, Jin Xing Distripark, Singapore 129809

John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd, 22 Worcester Road, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada M9W 1L1

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not

be available in electronic books.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Strongman, K. T.

The psychology of emotion : from everyday life to theory / Kenneth

T. Strongman.– 5th ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

ISBN 0-471-48567-5 – ISBN 0-471-48568-3 (pbk.: alk. paper)

1. Emotions. I. Title

BF531 .S825 2003

152.4–dc21 2002155461

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0-471-48567-5 (hbk)

ISBN 0-471-48568-3 (pbk)

Project management by Originator, Gt Yarmouth, Norfolk (typeset in 10/12pt Times and Stone Sans)

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd, Guildford and King’s Lynn

This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry

in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.

For my family, past and present, now delightfully blended, and especially for Averil,

who makes anything possible

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

1 An introduction............................... 1

Some real life; What a theory of emotion should do; How to use

this book; Summary; Further reading

2 Early theory ................................. 9

Some real life; Early philosophical theories of emotion; Darwin;

McDougall; James–Lange; Cannon (Cannon–Bard theory); Papez;

Duffy; Conclusions; Summary; A question of application; Further

reading

3 Phenomenological theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Some real life; Stumpf; Sartre; Buytedjik; Hillman; Fell; de Rivera;

Denzin; Stein, Trabasso and Liwag; Self, identity and well-being;

Conclusions; Summary; A question of application; Further reading

4 Behavioural theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Some real life; Watson; Harlow and Stagner; Millenson;

Weiskrantz; Hammond; Gray; Staats and Eifert; Conclusions;

Summary; A question of application; Further reading

5 Physiological theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Some real life; Earlier physiologically based views;

The neuroscience approach; The evolutionary approach;

Conclusions; Summary; A question of application; Further reading

6 Cognitive theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Some real life; Maranon; Arnold; Schachter; Leventhal; Bower;

Oatley and Johnson-Laird; Lazarus; Ellsworth; Frijda;

The cognition–emotion relationship; Conclusions; Summary;

A question of application; Further reading

7 Ambitious theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Some real life; Leeper; Tomkins; Averill; Mandler; Buck; Oatley and

Johnson-Laird; Izard; Ortony; Frijda; Conclusions; Summary;

A question of application; Further reading

8 Specific emotions theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Introduction; Anger; Anxiety and fear; Happiness; Sadness;

Disgust; Jealousy and envy; Grief; Love; Shame and other

self-conscious, self-reflexive emotions; Conclusions; Summary;

A question of application; Further reading

9 Developmental theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Some real life; Sroufe; Giblin; Attachment theory; Fischer, Shaver and Carnochan; Izard

and Malatesta (Malatesta-Magai); Malatesta-Magai; Izard, again; Camras; Lewis; Harris;

Cognition in development; Emotion regulation; Conclusions; Summary; A question of

application; Further reading

10 Social theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Some real life; Davitz – a dictionary; Eibl-Eibesfeldt – ethology; Frijda – dimensionality;

de Rivera – social relationships; Berscheid – more social relationships; Rime´ – social

sharing; Heise and O’Brien – group expression; Ekman – facial expression; Conclusions;

Summary; A question of application; Further reading

11 Clinical theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Some real life; Cognitive approaches to emotional dysfunction; Anxiety; Depression; Stress

and coping; Psychophysiology, psychosomatics and health; Alexithymia; Conclusions;

Summary; A question of application; Further reading

12 The individual and the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Some real life; Personality; Sex; Gender; Artificial emotion; The environment; Spirituality;

Conclusions; Summary; A question of application; Further reading

13 Emotion and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Some real life; Emotion at work; Emotion and sport; Emotion and the arts; Conclusions;

Summary; A question of application; Further reading

14 Theory outside psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Some real life; Philosophy; History; Anthropology; Sociology; Culture; Conclusions;

Summary; A question of application; Further reading

15 Emotion themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Some real life; Summary of theoretical perspectives; Biological foundations; Social

construction of emotions; Postmodern themes in emotion; Emotion as discourse; Emotional

experience; Emotions and morality; Emotions and feelings; Conclusions; Summary; A final

question of application; Further reading

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Author index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

viii Contents

Preface

A fifth edition. Phew! Over a 30-year time span. Where has it gone?

Putting such thoughts to one side, the great thing is that during those

30 years the study of emotion has begun to come of age, in a serious

way. In the early 1970s there was little information and a general

eschewing of emotion by psychologists. The reasons for this are best

developed in another context; for now it is enough to say that the

study of emotion seemed a little difficult to pursue with the type of

scientific rigour that many psychologists had come to believe was the

only way forward. No matter that emotion is an integral part of

human existence.

Because emotion is inescapable, its study had to develop, and

the various editions of this book have reflected that development.

Meanwhile, many other texts on emotion have appeared, to the

great credit of those who have produced them. At last, we are

getting somewhere and not merely within psychology. Emotion is

such a ubiquitous aspect of life that it can be viewed from multiple

perspectives.

Moreover, in the last few years, the importance of emotion in

everyday life, at work, in sport, at home, within the arts and so on

has also come to be recognised by those who study it. Of course, its

importance in those contexts has long been recognised by those who

don’t study it. But that is another matter. Received wisdom, both of

the everyday sort and the academic variety, is at last moving away

from the idea that emotion is to be contrasted with reason and then

ignored as irrelevant. Emotion has its part to play throughout the

lives of all of us, every day. Indeed, it is the very stuff of those lives.

So how we regulate emotion, whether or not we might be described

as emotionally intelligent, and in what ways emotion can dys￾function, if at all, have come to be hot topics. Even within the

realms of clinical psychology, the role of emotion is no longer

simply assumed – it is now being studied.

So, what of this fifth edition of The Psychology of Emotion?

The fourth edition made an honest attempt to deal with emotion

from a theoretical perspective, not ignoring empirical work, but

not discussing it in detail either. The reason for this was that there

was simply too much empirical work to consider in a single text that

was aimed at being inclusive. Naturally, however, empirical work

informed the synthesis attempted in that edition. The present

edition remains theoretically based, its structure similar to the

fourth edition. It has of course been brought up to date as far as possible, any omissions

being entirely due to a lack of diligence on the part of the author. If there are such

omissions and they are irritating, then I apologise. A negative emotional reaction is the

last thing that a book on emotion should engender.

The attempt has also been made in this edition of the book to bring it into

everyday life, having the various theoretical approaches reflected by creating examples

that are grounded in the world at large. If any theory about human existence, no

matter from which discipline it derives, cannot be so grounded then one would

question its usefulness. Similarly, by asking the reader questions that are aimed at

being provocative, the goal has been to give the book an applied flavour. Thus, each

chapter begins and ends in this way, even though the middle ground might be quite

heady, theoretically. For me, the interplay between theory and the practicalities of daily

life are what psychology and the other social sciences depend on.

In detail, some chapters are quite similar in the fourth and fifth editions and some

are very different. This reflects what has happened in the intervening six or seven years

and how the interests of those who work in the field have developed. Themes have

emerged and are strengthening. For example, there is a fine interplay between the

biologically based theorists, consistently taking a functional, evolutionary view of

emotion, and the social constructionists, who prefer to emphasize societal influences

on emotion. Postmodern thought is in there, as are recent developments in cultural

theory and a consideration of the role of emotion in the moral order, long discussed by

philosophers.

This is sufficient to give an idea of what has been attempted in this fifth edition.

Those who read it should learn much about emotion theory and should be able to

understand emotion within an everyday framework. That, at least, is the aim.

As ever with a book, one owes a debt to many people. The most important of

these are my family to whom this book has been dedicated, but there are also others.

I thank all those theorists who have written so cogently in their attempts to grapple

with such a basic but nevertheless difficult topic. In particular, I include here the

members of the International Society for Research on Emotion. They are a fine

interdisciplinary group of scholars who have moved our understanding of emotion

on apace. I am also indebted to year after year of graduate students who share my

enthusiasm for the study of emotion. Their freshness is invigorating and their insights

significant. It is always a privilege to be with them. And it has been a privilege to have

been prompted by the publishers into this fifth edition.

x Preface

Chapter 1

An introduction

It is inconceivable to me that there could be an approach to the mind, or to

human and animal adaptation, in which emotions are not a key component.

Failure to give emotion a central role puts theoretical and research psychology

out of step with human preoccupations from the beginning of recorded time.

R. S. LAZARUS, 1991

‘Normal insanity’ begins when the emotions are aroused.

C. G. JUNG, 1940

Some real life.................................... 2

What a theory of emotion should do ................. 3

How to use this book ............................. 5

Summary ....................................... 7

Further reading .................................. 7

Some real life

I

t is late at night and you are sitting quietly. The neighbours are all away. Suddenly,

there is a huge thump on the front door, a scream and then a deathly quiet. You

pick up the telephone extension to make a call and hear your partner having a quietly

intimate conversation.

You are in the manager’s office waiting for him to return. You decide to peek at the

papers on his desk and as you do so he walks in.

You check your lotto ticket and find that you have won $10,000.

You are out walking and coming towards you you see a close friend who has been

away for some years.

You are out walking with your partner and are suddenly surrounded by a bikers’ gang

blasting you with aggressive dust and noise.

Emotion is a daily, if not a moment-by-moment, occurrence. However, a treatise on

emotion theory has to jump away temporarily from the everyday and instead begin with

a consideration of what makes a good theory of emotion. If one were setting out to

build a theory of emotion, what would one necessarily include, what issues would have

to be dealt with? Although these are perfectly reasonable questions, they do not delve

quite far enough. In order to make judgements about what is a good theory of emotion

it is important to have some understanding of what makes a good theory in general, or,

if not in general, at least in the science of psychology. This, then, is the starting point.

There have been many penetrating analyses of the characteristics of good theory,

but to reiterate them would be to go too far. It is enough to mention a few that might be

considered particularly significant in the context of the present endeavour.

Any theory should not only provide a cogent summary of some aspect of the

world but should also have reasonable explanatory power. In the world of emotions,

does a particular theory explain things that other theories do not? Does it explain things

better than other theories? Related to this, is a theory expressed in a language that is

(logically) consistent?

Of course, it is often not these two characteristics that are put first in any con￾sideration of the value of a scientific theory. Frequently, pride of place is given to the

degree to which a theory leads to testable predictions. Of course, this is an important

characteristic of theory evaluation, and should be taken into account, but it is not the

most important. Nor, in the view of the author, is it a necessary aspect of good theory.

Arguably of more importance than the capacity to generate testable predictions,

in an area as complex and fraught with difficulties as emotion, the worth of a theory

might depend more on the extent to which it generates new ideas or provides new ways

of looking at things. If a theory prompts a critical re-evaluation of thought, which in

turn might lead to the sort of theory from which testable predictions jump out, then it

has been worthwhile.

2 The Psychology of Emotion

Finally, when considering theory on this broad front, and particularly in an area

as wide-ranging as emotion, there is the question of the focus of the theory. Is it general

or is it more circumscribed and critical. There might be a cogent and useful theory of

emotion in general or of fear or guilt in particular. There might be a theory that is

concerned solely with the links between emotion and memory or with emotional

expression and recognition, for example. Or a theory might have far broader concerns;

for example, with the links between emotion and culture. Both types of theory have

their place, but it is important that the extent of a theory’s domain be made clear.

Again, this is a general quality on which it is important to judge the worth of a theory.

What a theory of emotion should do

With these more general concerns as a background, the foreground is taken up with

emotion theories themselves. What should they accomplish if they are to be judged as

worthwhile, as good theories? A useful way of attempting to answer this question is to

consider the views of some of the more recent emotion theorists.

However, standing out from the foreground is emotion itself; the true starting

point has to be what it is that the theories are set to account for. A general theory of

emotion must have a place for a scream of anguish, a sob of grief, a peal of laughter, a

blush of embarrassment and a squirm of shame. It has to deal with stomach-knotting

disgust of putrefaction, the pride in a child’s achievements and the yearning to be

nurtured (amae) that characterizes Japanese society. It should have room for the

seeming threat to life of a panic attackand the suicidal despair and hopelessness of

clinical depression.

Emotion permeates life, it is there as a subtext to everything we do and say. It is

reflected in physiology, expression and behaviour; it interweaves with cognition; it fills

the spaces between people, interpersonally and culturally. Above all, emotion is centred

internally, in subjective feelings. Like physical pain, emotion provides us with personal

information that is integral to our well-being or, in the extreme, to our survival.

To return to the characteristics of a ‘good’ theory of emotion, Lazarus (1991a, b)

lists 12 issues that any theory of emotion should address:

(1) definition;

(2) the distinction between emotion and non-emotion;

(3) whether or not emotions are discrete;

(4) the role of action tendencies and physiology;

(5) the manner in which emotions are functionally interdependent;

(6) the links between cognition, motivation and emotion;

(7) the relationship between the biological and sociocultural bases of emotion;

(8) the role of appraisal and consciousness;

(9) the generation of emotions;

(10) the matter of emotional development;

(11) the effects of emotion on general functioning and well-being; and

(12) the influence of therapy on emotion.

An introduction 3

In fact, that those who write about emotion agree with the importance of these issues

can be seen in their coverage in almost any text that has appeared on emotion in recent

years. There are also one or two other issues that are typically mentioned, although they

are not considered by Lazarus. They will be returned to later.

In order to deal with all these matters, Lazarus argues that any theory of emotion

must put together the numerous eliciting conditions and mediating processes of

emotion. To bring this about, such a theory has to make propositions of various

sorts. For example, there must be statements based on emotion seen as a dependent

variable. So the causes of emotion should be addressed, from personality to environ￾ment, from culture to appraisal. Other propositions should derive from emotion viewed

as an independent variable (i.e., the effects of emotion). Moreover, from Lazarus’s

perspective, there must be propositions about specific emotions. Naturally, these

must be consistent with the general propositions and must depend on decisions

about what particular emotions to include. This, in turn, depends on whatever is the

initial definition of emotion, thus bringing the theoretical endeavour backto its starting

point.

To take a slightly different approach to the question of what any theory of

emotion should take into account, it is instructive to consider Oatley’s (1992) stimu￾lating contribution. In a bookthat is avowedly Aristotelian in approach and reliant on

a cognitive science perspective, he lists seven postulates which form the basis of Oatley

and Johnson-Laird’s (1987) communicative theory of emotion. This will be dealt with in

detail later, but for now the areas of the postulates will be listed. They concern:

(1) the function of emotions;

(2) discrete emotions in which there is a bridge between folktheory and scientific

theory;

(3) the unconsciousness of the individual of the causes of emotion;

(4) the interpersonal communication of emotion;

(5) emotions as dependent on evaluations of events to do with goals;

(6) basic emotions, with distinctive physiology; and

(7) the ability to simulate the plans and understand the emotions of other people.

The sort of theory that Oatley espouses might be from a particular viewpoint, but it is

nevertheless very far-reaching. Clearly, its propositions overlap with the sort suggested

by Lazarus, but they do no more than overlap. They have a different emphasis. Oatley

proposes that there are two types of test to which the sort of theoretical emphasis he

suggests might be put. His point, although self-directed, has a more general application.

The Lakatos (1978) sort of test is that a theory can deal with more of the evidence that

is considered relevant than any competing theories. The Popper (1945) sort of test is

that there can be derived from the theory specific predictions that should cast doubt on

the theory if they are not supported.

Considering Oatley’s views on what should be accomplished by a theory of

emotion also suggests the possibility that perspectives on this will depend to some

extent on the breadth of the theory. It might be reasonable to suppose that any

theory of emotion should be broad enough to include most or all of the facets of

emotion that are typically studied. There should be room for matters physiological,

behavioural, cognitive and experiential. Consideration should be given to the develop￾4 The Psychology of Emotion