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E book:
Integration and
Automation of
Manufacturing
Systems
page 1
Integration and Automation
of
Manufacturing Systems
by: Hugh Jack
© Copyright 1993-2001, Hugh Jack
page 2
PREFACE
1. INTEGRATED AND AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING . . . .13
1.1 INTRODUCTION 13
1.1.1 Why Integrate? 13
1.1.2 Why Automate? 14
1.2 THE BIG PICTURE 16
1.2.1 CAD/CAM? 17
1.2.2 The Architecture of Integration 17
1.2.3 General Concepts 19
1.3 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 22
2. AN INTRODUCTION TO LINUX/UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
2.1 OVERVIEW 23
2.1.1 What is it? 23
2.1.2 A (Brief) History 24
2.1.3 Hardware required and supported 25
2.1.4 Applications and uses 25
2.1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 26
2.1.6 Getting It 26
2.1.7 Distributions 27
2.1.8 Installing 27
2.2 USING LINUX 28
2.2.1 Some Terminology 28
2.2.2 File and directories 29
2.2.3 User accounts and root 31
2.2.4 Processes 33
2.3 NETWORKING 34
2.3.1 Security 35
2.4 INTERMEDIATE CONCEPTS 35
2.4.1 Shells 35
2.4.2 X-Windows 36
2.4.3 Configuring 36
2.4.4 Desktop Tools 37
2.5 LABORATORY - A LINUX SERVER 37
2.6 TUTORIAL - INSTALLING LINUX 38
2.7 TUTORIAL - USING LINUX 40
2.8 REFERENCES 41
3. AN INTRODUCTION TO C/C++ PROGRAMMING . . . . . . . . .43
3.1 INTRODUCTION 43
3.2 PROGRAM PARTS 44
3.3 CLASSES AND OVERLOADING 50
3.4 HOW A ‘C’ COMPILER WORKS 52
page 3
3.5 STRUCTURED ‘C’ CODE 53
3.6 COMPILING C PROGRAMS IN LINUX 54
3.6.1 Makefiles 55
3.7 ARCHITECTURE OF ‘C’ PROGRAMS (TOP-DOWN) 56
3.7.1 How? 56
3.7.2 Why? 57
3.8 CREATING TOP DOWN PROGRAMS 58
3.9 CASE STUDY - THE BEAMCAD PROGRAM 59
3.9.1 Objectives: 59
3.9.2 Problem Definition: 59
3.9.3 User Interface: 59
Screen Layout (also see figure): 59
Input: 60
Output: 60
Help: 60
Error Checking: 61
Miscellaneous: 61
3.9.4 Flow Program: 62
3.9.5 Expand Program: 62
3.9.6 Testing and Debugging: 64
3.9.7 Documentation 65
Users Manual: 65
Programmers Manual: 65
3.9.8 Listing of BeamCAD Program. 65
3.10 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 66
3.11 LABORATORY - C PROGRAMMING 66
4. NETWORK COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.1 INTRODUCTION 68
4.2 NETWORKS 69
4.2.1 Topology 69
4.2.2 OSI Network Model 71
4.2.3 Networking Hardware 73
4.2.4 Control Network Issues 75
4.2.5 Ethernet 76
4.2.6 SLIP and PPP 77
4.3 INTERNET 78
4.3.1 Computer Addresses 79
4.3.2 Computer Ports 80
Mail Transfer Protocols 81
FTP - File Transfer Protocol 81
HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol 81
4.3.3 Security 82
Firewalls and IP Masquerading 84
4.4 FORMATS 85
page 4
4.4.1 HTML 85
4.4.2 URLs 87
4.4.3 Encryption 88
4.4.4 Clients and Servers 88
4.4.5 Java 89
4.4.6 Javascript 89
4.4.7 CGI 89
4.5 NETWORKING IN LINUX 89
4.5.1 Network Programming in Linux 91
4.6 DESIGN CASES 102
4.7 SUMMARY 103
4.8 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 103
4.9 LABORATORY - NETWORKING 104
4.9.1 Prelab 105
4.9.2 Laboratory 107
5. DATABASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
5.1 SQL AND RELATIONAL DATABASES 109
5.2 DATABASE ISSUES 114
5.3 LABORATORY - SQL FOR DATABASE INTEGRATION 114
5.4 LABORATORY - USING C FOR DATABASE CALLS 116
6. COMMUNICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
6.1 SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS 119
6.1.1 RS-232 122
6.2 SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS UNDER LINUX 125
6.3 PARALLEL COMMUNICATIONS 129
6.4 LABORATORY - SERIAL INTERFACING AND PROGRAMMING
130
6.5 LABORATORY - STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER 130
7. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLCs) . . . . . . .134
7.1 BASIC LADDER LOGIC 136
7.2 WHAT DOES LADDER LOGIC DO? 138
7.2.1 Connecting A PLC To A Process 139
7.2.2 PLC Operation 139
7.3 LADDER LOGIC 141
7.3.1 Relay Terminology 144
7.3.2 Ladder Logic Inputs 146
7.3.3 Ladder Logic Outputs 147
7.4 LADDER DIAGRAMS 147
7.4.1 Ladder Logic Design 148
7.4.2 A More Complicated Example of Design 150
7.5 TIMERS/COUNTERS/LATCHES 151
page 5
7.6 LATCHES 152
7.7 TIMERS 153
7.8 COUNTERS 157
7.9 DESIGN AND SAFETY 159
7.9.1 FLOW CHARTS 160
7.10 SAFETY 160
7.10.1 Grounding 161
7.10.2 Programming/Wiring 162
7.10.3 PLC Safety Rules 162
7.10.4 Troubleshooting 163
7.11 DESIGN CASES 164
7.11.1 DEADMAN SWITCH 164
7.11.2 CONVEYOR 165
7.11.3 ACCEPT/REJECT SORTING 165
7.11.4 SHEAR PRESS 166
7.12 ADDRESSING 168
7.12.1 Data Files 169
Inputs and Outputs 172
User Numerical Memory 172
Timer Counter Memory 172
PLC Status Bits (for PLC-5s) 173
User Function Memory 174
7.13 INSTRUCTION TYPES 174
7.13.1 Program Control Structures 175
7.13.2 Branching and Looping 175
Immediate I/O Instructions 179
Fault Detection and Interrupts 181
7.13.3 Basic Data Handling 182
Move Functions 182
7.14 MATH FUNCTIONS 184
7.15 LOGICAL FUNCTIONS 191
7.15.1 Comparison of Values 191
7.16 BINARY FUNCTIONS 193
7.17 ADVANCED DATA HANDLING 194
7.17.1 Multiple Data Value Functions 195
7.17.2 Block Transfer Functions 196
7.18 COMPLEX FUNCTIONS 198
7.18.1 Shift Registers 198
7.18.2 Stacks 199
7.18.3 Sequencers 200
7.19 ASCII FUNCTIONS 202
7.20 DESIGN TECHNIQUES 203
7.20.1 State Diagrams 203
7.21 DESIGN CASES 206
7.21.1 If-Then 207
page 6
7.21.2 For-Next 207
7.21.3 Conveyor 208
7.22 IMPLEMENTATION 209
7.23 PLC WIRING 209
7.23.1 SWITCHED INPUTS AND OUTPUTS 210
Input Modules 211
Actuators 212
Output Modules 213
7.24 THE PLC ENVIRONMENT 216
7.24.1 Electrical Wiring Diagrams 216
7.24.2 Wiring 219
7.24.3 Shielding and Grounding 221
7.24.4 PLC Environment 223
7.24.5 SPECIAL I/O MODULES 224
7.25 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 227
7.26 REFERENCES 237
7.27 LABORATORY - SERIAL INTERFACING TO A PLC 238
8. PLCS AND NETWORKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
8.1 OPEN NETWORK TYPES 240
8.1.1 Devicenet 240
8.1.2 CANbus 245
8.1.3 Controlnet 246
8.1.4 Profibus 247
8.2 PROPRIETARY NETWORKS 248
Data Highway 248
8.3 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 252
8.4 LABORATORY - DEVICENET 258
8.5 TUTORIAL - SOFTPLC AND DEVICENET 258
9. INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
9.1 INTRODUCTION 262
9.1.1 Basic Terms 262
9.1.2 Positioning Concepts 266
Accuracy and Repeatability 266
Control Resolution 270
Payload 271
9.2 ROBOT TYPES 276
9.2.1 Basic Robotic Systems 276
9.2.2 Types of Robots 277
Robotic Arms 277
Autonomous/Mobile Robots 280
Automatic Guided Vehicles (AGVs) 280
9.3 MECHANISMS 281
9.4 ACTUATORS 282
page 7
9.5 A COMMERCIAL ROBOT 283
9.5.1 Mitsubishi RV-M1 Manipulator 284
9.5.2 Movemaster Programs 286
Language Examples 286
9.5.3 Command Summary 290
9.6 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 291
9.7 LABORATORY - MITSUBISHI RV-M1 ROBOT 296
9.8 TUTORIAL - MITSUBISHI RV-M1 296
10. OTHER INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
10.1 SEIKO RT 3000 MANIPULATOR 299
10.1.1 DARL Programs 300
Language Examples 301
Commands Summary 305
10.2 IBM 7535 MANIPULATOR 308
10.2.1 AML Programs 312
10.3 ASEA IRB-1000 317
10.4 UNIMATION PUMA (360, 550, 560 SERIES) 319
10.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 320
10.6 LABORATORY - SEIKO RT-3000 ROBOT 330
10.7 TUTORIAL - SEIKO RT-3000 ROBOT 331
10.8 LABORATORY - ASEA IRB-1000 ROBOT 332
10.9 TUTORIAL - ASEA IRB-1000 ROBOT 332
11. ROBOT APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
11.0.1 Overview 333
11.0.2 Spray Painting and Finishing 335
11.0.3 Welding 335
11.0.4 Assembly 336
11.0.5 Belt Based Material Transfer 336
11.1 END OF ARM TOOLING (EOAT) 337
11.1.1 EOAT Design 337
11.1.2 Gripper Mechanisms 340
Vacuum grippers 342
11.1.3 Magnetic Grippers 344
Adhesive Grippers 345
11.1.4 Expanding Grippers 345
11.1.5 Other Types Of Grippers 346
11.2 ADVANCED TOPICS 347
11.2.1 Simulation/Off-line Programming 347
11.3 INTERFACING 348
11.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 348
11.5 LABORATORY - ROBOT INTERFACING 350
11.6 LABORATORY - ROBOT WORKCELL INTEGRATION 351
page 8
12. SPATIAL KINEMATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
12.1 BASICS 352
12.1.1 Degrees of Freedom 353
12.2 HOMOGENEOUS MATRICES 354
12.2.1 Denavit-Hartenberg Transformation (D-H) 359
12.2.2 Orientation 361
12.2.3 Inverse Kinematics 363
12.2.4 The Jacobian 364
12.3 SPATIAL DYNAMICS 366
12.3.1 Moments of Inertia About Arbitrary Axes 366
12.3.2 Euler’s Equations of Motion 369
12.3.3 Impulses and Momentum 370
Linear Momentum 370
Angular Momentum 371
12.4 DYNAMICS FOR KINEMATICS CHAINS 372
12.4.1 Euler-Lagrange 372
12.4.2 Newton-Euler 375
12.5 REFERENCES 375
12.6 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 376
13. MOTION CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
13.1 KINEMATICS 390
13.1.1 Basic Terms 390
13.1.2 Kinematics 391
Geometry Methods for Forward Kinematics 392
Geometry Methods for Inverse Kinematics 393
13.1.3 Modeling the Robot 394
13.2 PATH PLANNING 395
13.2.1 Slew Motion 395
Joint Interpolated Motion 397
Straight-line motion 397
13.2.2 Computer Control of Robot Paths (Incremental Interpolation)400
13.3 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 403
13.4 LABORATORY - AXIS AND MOTION CONTROL 408
14. CNC MACHINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
14.1 MACHINE AXES 409
14.2 NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC) 409
14.2.1 NC Tapes 410
14.2.2 Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 411
14.2.3 Direct/Distributed Numerical Control (DNC) 412
14.3 EXAMPLES OF EQUIPMENT 414
14.3.1 EMCO PC Turn 50 414
14.3.2 Light Machines Corp. proLIGHT Mill 415
page 9
14.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 417
14.5 TUTORIAL - EMCO MAIER PCTURN 50 LATHE (OLD) 417
14.6 TUTORIAL - PC TURN 50 LATHE DOCUMENTATION: (By Jonathan
DeBoer) 418
14.6.1 LABORATORY - CNC MACHINING 424
15. CNC PROGRAMMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
15.1 G-CODES 428
15.2 APT 436
15.3 PROPRIETARY NC CODES 440
15.4 GRAPHICAL PART PROGRAMMING 441
15.5 NC CUTTER PATHS 442
15.6 NC CONTROLLERS 444
15.7 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 445
15.8 LABORATORY - CNC INTEGRATION 446
16. DATA AQUISITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448
16.1 INTRODUCTION 448
16.2 ANALOG INPUTS 449
16.3 ANALOG OUTPUTS 455
16.4 REAL-TIME PROCESSING 458
16.5 DISCRETE IO 459
16.6 COUNTERS AND TIMERS 459
16.7 ACCESSING DAQ CARDS FROM LINUX 459
16.8 SUMMARY 476
16.9 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 476
16.10 LABORATORY - INTERFACING TO A DAQ CARD 478
17. VISIONS SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
17.1 OVERVIEW 479
17.2 APPLICATIONS 480
17.3 LIGHTING AND SCENE 481
17.4 CAMERAS 482
17.5 FRAME GRABBER 486
17.6 IMAGE PREPROCESSING 486
17.7 FILTERING 487
17.7.1 Thresholding 487
17.8 EDGE DETECTION 487
17.9 SEGMENTATION 488
17.9.1 Segment Mass Properties 490
17.10 RECOGNITION 491
17.10.1 Form Fitting 491
17.10.2 Decision Trees 492
page 10
17.11 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 494
17.12 TUTORIAL - LABVIEW BASED IMAQ VISION 499
17.13 LABORATORY - VISION SYSTEMS FOR INSPECTION 500
18. INTEGRATION ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502
18.1 CORPORATE STRUCTURES 502
18.2 CORPORATE COMMUNICATIONS 502
18.3 COMPUTER CONTROLLED BATCH PROCESSES 514
18.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 516
18.5 LABORATORY - WORKCELL INTEGRATION 516
19. MATERIAL HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
19.1 INTRODUCTION 518
19.2 VIBRATORY FEEDERS 520
19.3 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 521
19.4 LABORATORY - MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM 521
19.4.1 System Assembly and Simple Controls 521
19.5 AN EXAMPLE OF AN FMS CELL 523
19.5.1 Overview 523
19.5.2 Workcell Specifications 525
19.5.3 Operation of The Cell 526
19.6 THE NEED FOR CONCURRENT PROCESSING 534
19.7 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 536
20. PETRI NETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
20.1 INTRODUCTION 537
20.2 A BRIEF OUTLINE OF PETRI NET THEORY 537
20.3 MORE REVIEW 540
20.4 USING THE SUBROUTINES 548
20.4.1 Basic Petri Net Simulation 548
20.4.2 Transitions With Inhibiting Inputs 550
20.4.3 An Exclusive OR Transition: 552
20.4.4 Colored Tokens 555
20.4.5 RELATIONAL NETS 557
20.5 C++ SOFTWARE 558
20.6 IMPLEMENTATION FOR A PLC 559
20.7 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 564
20.8 REFERENCES 565
21. PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
21.1 OVERVIEW 566
21.2 SCHEDULING 567
21.2.1 Material Requirements Planning (MRP) 567
21.2.2 Capacity Planning 569
page 11
21.3 SHOP FLOOR CONTROL 570
21.3.1 Shop Floor Scheduling - Priority Scheduling 570
21.3.2 Shop Floor Monitoring 571
22. SIMULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
22.1 MODEL BUILDING 573
22.2 ANALYSIS 575
22.3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS 576
22.4 RUNNING THE SIMULATION 579
22.5 DECISION MAKING STRATEGY 579
23. PLANNING AND ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
23.1 FACTORS TO CONSIDER 581
23.2 PROJECT COST ACCOUNTING 583
24. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
25. APPENDIX A - PROJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
25.1 TOPIC SELECTION 588
25.1.1 Previous Project Topics 588
25.2 CURRENT PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS 590
26. APPENDIX B - COMMON REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
26.1 JIC ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS 591
26.2 NEMA ENCLOSURES 592
page 12
PREFACE
I have been involved in teaching laboratory based integrated manufacturing courses since
1993. Over that time I have used many textbooks, but I have always been unsatisfied with their
technical depth. To offset this I had to supply supplemental materials. These supplemental materials have evolved into this book.
This book is designed to focus on topics relevant to the modern manufacturer, while avoiding
topics that are more research oriented. This allows the chapters to focus on the applicable theory
for the integrated systems, and then discuss implementation.
Many of the chapters of this book use the Linux operating system. Some might argue that
Microsoft products are more pervasive, and so should be emphasized, but I disagree with this. It is
much easier to implement a complex system in Linux, and once implemented the system is more
reliable, secure and easier to maintain. In addition the Microsoft operating system is designed
with a model that focuses on entertainment and office use and is incompatible with the needs of
manufacturing professionals. Most notably there is a constant pressure to upgrade every 2-3 years
adding a burden.
The reader is expected to have some knowledge of C, or C++ programming, although a
review chapter is provided. When possible a programming example is supplied to allow the reader
to develop their own programs for integration and automation.
page 13
1. INTEGRATED AND AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING
Integrated manufacturing uses computers to connect physically separated processes. When
integrated, the processes can share information and initiate actions. This allows decisions to be
made faster and with fewer errors. Automation allows manufacturing processes to be run automatically, without requiring intervention.
This chapter will discuss how these systems fit into manufacturing, and what role they play.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
An integrated system requires that there be two or more computers connected to pass information. A simple example is a robot controller and a programmable logic controller working
together in a single machine. A complex example is an entire manufacturing plant with hundreds
of workstations connected to a central database. The database is used to distribute work instructions, job routing data and to store quality control test results. In all cases the major issue is connecting devices for the purposes of transmitting data.
• Automated equipment and systems don’t require human effort or direction. Although this
does not require a computer based solution
• Automated systems benefit from some level of integration
1.1.1 Why Integrate?
There is a tendency to look at computer based solutions as inherently superior. This is an
assumption that an engineer cannot afford to entertain. Some of the factors that justify an inte-
page 14
grated system are listed below.
• a large organization where interdepartmental communication is a problem
• the need to monitor processes
• Things to Avoid when making a decision for integration and automation,
- ignore impact on upstream and downstream operations
- allow the system to become the driving force in strategy
- believe the vendor will solve the problem
- base decisions solely on financials
- ignore employee input to the process
- try to implement all at once (if possible)
• Justification of integration and automation,
- consider “BIG” picture
- determine key problems that must be solved
- highlight areas that will be impacted in enterprise
- determine kind of flexibility needed
- determine what kind of integration to use
- look at FMS impacts
- consider implementation cost based on above
• Factors to consider in integration decision,
- volume of product
- previous experience of company with FMS
- product mix
- scheduling / production mixes
- extent of information system usage in organization (eg. MRP)
- use of CAD/CAM at the front end.
- availability of process planning and process data
* Process planning is only part of CIM, and cannot stand alone.
1.1.2 Why Automate?
• Why ? - In many cases there are valid reasons for assisting humans
- tedious work -- consistency required
- dangerous
- tasks are beyond normal human abilities (e.g., weight, time, size, etc)
- economics