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ELECTRIC CAPITALISM

RECO LO N ISI N G AFRI CA O N TH E POWER G RI D EDITED BY DAVID A McDONALD

London • Sterling, VA

Cape Town

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First published in Southern Africa in 2009 by HSRC Press

Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa

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Published in the rest of the world in 2009 by Earthscan

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© 2009 Human Sciences Research Council

The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors. They do not necessarily

reflect the views or policies of the Human Sciences Research Council (‘the Council’)

or indicate that the Council endorses the views of the authors. In quoting from this publication,

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ISBN (soft cover) 978-0-7969-2237-3

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Contents

List of tables and figures v

Acronyms and abbreviations viii

Acknowledgements xiv

Introduction: The importance of being electric xv

David A McDonald

1 Electric capitalism: Conceptualising electricity and

capital accumulation in (South) Africa 1

David A McDonald

2 Escom to Eskom: From racial Keynesian capitalism to

neo-liberalism (1910–1994) 50

Leonard Gentle

3 Market liberalisation and continental expansion: The repositioning

of Eskom in post-apartheid South Africa 73

Stephen Greenberg

4 Cheap at half the cost: Coal and electricity in South Africa 109

Richard Worthington

5 The great hydro-rush: The privatisation of Africa’s rivers 149

Terri Hathaway and Lori Pottinger

6 A price too high: Nuclear energy in South Africa 180

David Fig

7 Renewable energy: Harnessing the power of Africa? 202

Liz McDaid

8 Discipline and the new ‘logic of delivery’: Prepaid electricity

in South Africa and beyond 229

Peter van Heusden

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9 Free basic electricity in South Africa: A strategy for helping

or containing the poor? 248

Greg Ruiters

10 Power to the people? A rights-based analysis of South Africa’s

electricity services 264

Jackie Dugard

11 Still in the shadows: Women and gender relations in the

electricity sector in South Africa 288

Wendy Annecke

12 From local to global (and back again?): Anti-commodification

struggles of the Soweto Electricity Crisis Committee 321

Prishani Naidoo and Ahmed Veriava

13 South African carbon trading: A counterproductive climate

change strategy 338

Patrick Bond and Graham Erion

14 Electricity and privatisation in Uganda: The origins of the crisis

and problems with the response 359

Christopher Gore

15 Connected geographies and struggles over access: Electricity

commercialisation in Tanzania 400

Rebecca Ghanadan

Conclusion: Alternative electricity paths for southern Africa 437

David A McDonald

Epilogue 454

Appendix 1: Electricity 101 459

Derek Brine

Appendix 2: Absolute and relative electricity profiles 479

Notes on contributors 484

Index 486

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List of tables and figures

Tables

Table 1 Benefits of electricity as they relate to the Millennium Development

Goals xvii

Table 1.1 Electrical appliance ownership in South Africa (percentages),

by race, 2006 17

Table 1.2 Southern African Power Pool membership, 2006 31

Table 1.3 Electricity capacity in Africa, by region, 2005 33

Table 2.1 Electricity sales in South Africa, by company, 1939 55

Table 2.2 Electricity generation capacity growth in South Africa, 1961–1992 63

Table 4.1 Eskom’s coal-fired power stations, 2004 120

Table 4.2 IEA energy statistics for sub-Saharan African countries, 2003 125

Table 4.3 Toxic effects of selected power plant pollutants on humans 127

Table 4.4 Environmental impacts of Eskom electricity generation, 2004–2005 129

Table 4.5 Air emissions from South Africa’s main energy producers

(tons), 2004 130

Table 4.6 Fuel combustion CO2

emissions by intensity and per capita, 2000 131

Table 4.7 Sector emissions in South Africa, 1990 and 1994 131

Table 4.8 Summary of external costs of Eskom electricity generation, 1999 135

Table 4.9 Summary of external costs of Eskom electricity generation (per unit),

1999 136

Table 7.1 Job-creation potential of renewable and non-renewable energy

technologies 206

Table 7.2 Comparative contribution of renewables to total energy demand

(percentage), 2050 212

Table 7.3 Comparison of solar water heaters and the pebble bed technology

nuclear reactor 213

Table 9.1 Energy used, by appliance 252

Table 9.2 Households receiving free basic electricity services from municipalities,

2003–2004 256

Table 13.1 Energy sector carbon emissions, 1999 352

Table 15.1 Shifts from state-led development to market-led provision

in electricity 404

Table 15.2 Key elements of Tanzania’s electricity reforms, as of

December 2006 405

Table 15.3 South African electricity prepayment meters in Africa, 2005 409

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Table 15.4 A summary of Tanzania’s electricity sector development,

1908–2005 413

Table 15.5 Service connections, 2002–2005 422

Table 15.6 Household strategies for dealing with increasing energy costs 424

Table 15.7 Local electricity conditions in Manzese, Dar es Salaam, 2005 427

Table 16.1 Typology of public–public partnerships 446

Table A1.1 Resistivity of some materials at 20 °C 461

Table A1.2 Voltage and frequency standards in selected countries 465

Figures

Figure 1.1 Projected time frames for electricity demand and capacity development

in South Africa 30

Figure 1.2 Southern African Power Pool transmission networks (existing

and planned) 32

Figure 1.3 African regional power pools – CAPP, EAPP, SAPP and WAPP 33

Figure 1.4 A continental distribution network 34

Figure 1.5 Planned Western Power Corridor Project 35

Figure 3.1 Eskom employment, 1990–2005 84

Figure 3.2 Eskom and local government electricity connections, 1991–2005 86

Figure 3.3 Average cost per connection, 1992–2006 88

Figure 3.4 Eskom Enterprises after-tax profit/loss, 2000–2005 92

Figure 3.5 Eskom in Africa, 2003 93

Figure 4.1 Sectoral breakdown of electricity use in South Africa (GWh), 2002 119

Figure 4.2 Electrical generation capacity of existing plants in South Africa,

1995–2055 121

Figure 4.3 Southern African recoverable coal reserves (million short

tons), 2003 123

Figure 4.4 Employment in coal-based electricity generation in South Africa,

1980–2000 133

Figure 7.1 Comparison of carbon dioxide emissions per capita, 2001 204

Figure 7.2 Renewables scenario, 2050: how electricity demand would be met 207

Figure 14.1 Existing and proposed large hydro-electric facilities in Uganda 360

Figure 15.1 Political cartoon critiquing legitimacy of private electricity

generators 411

Figure 15.2 Tanesco revenue collections, 2002–2005 416

Figure 15.3 Electricity disconnections, 2002–2005 417

Figure 15.4 Utility public relations announcements, 2005 419

Figure 15.5 Household cooking cost comparisons using various fuels,

1990 versus 2005 426

Figure A1.1 Fundamental electric generator 466

Figure A1.2 Typical commercial electric generator structure 467

Figure A1.3 The Rankine cycle 469

Figure A1.4 The Brayton cycle 472

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Figure A1.5 Combined cycle gas-turbine 473

Figure A1.6 Hydro-electric power plant schematic 474

Figure A1.7 Electrons and current flow in solar cells 476

Figure A2.1 Access to electricity 480

Figure A2.2 Electricity production (all types) 480

Figure A2.3 Electricity production (hydro) 481

Figure A2.4 Electricity production (oil) 481

Figure A2.5 Electricity production (gas) 482

Figure A2.6 Electricity production (coal) 482

Figure A2.7 Electricity production (nuclear) 483

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viii

Acronyms and abbreviations

ACHPR African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights

AEB Atomic Energy Board (1949–1970)

AEC Atomic Energy Corporation (1970–1999)

AES Allied Energy Systems

AESNP AES Nile Power

AfDB African Development Bank

AFREC African Energy Commission

AMEU Association of Municipal Energy Undertakings

ANC African National Congress

APF Anti-Privatisation Forum

ARN African Rivers Network

ASGISA Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa

BEE black economic empowerment

BPC Botswana Power Corporation

BSA British South Africa Company

CALS Centre for Applied Legal Studies

CANSA Campaign Against Neoliberalism in South Africa

CAPP Central African Power Pool

CCS carbon capture and storage

CCT City of Cape Town

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination

Against Women

CEF Central Energy Fund

CER Certified Emissions Reduction

CESCR United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

CHP combined heat and power generation

COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa

COP Conference of Parties

Cosatu Congress of South African Trade Unions

CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

DBSA Development Bank of Southern Africa

DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism

DfID Department for International Development

DG Director-General

DME Department of Minerals and Energy

DNA Designated National Authority

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A C R O N Y M S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S

DOE Designated Operational Entity

DPE Department of Public Enterprises

DPLG Department of Provincial and Local Government

DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo

DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry

EAC East African Community

EAP&L East African Power and Lighting Company

EAPP East African Power Pool

ECB Electricity Control Board

ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States

ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States

EDI Electricity Distribution Industry

EdM Electricidade de Moçambique

EDRC Energy for Development Research Centre

EIA environmental impact assessment

EIB European Investment Bank

ENE Empresa Naçional de Electricidade

ERA Electricity Regulatory Authority

ERIC Electricity Restructuring Inter-departmental Committee

ERP Economic Recovery Programme

Escom/Eskom Electricity Supply Commission

ESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme

ESP electrostatic precipitator

ET Africa Eskom Telecommunications Africa

EU European Union

EWG Electricity Working Group

EWURA Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority

FBC fluidised bed combustion

FBE free basic electricity

FEMA Forum for Energy Ministers of Africa

FGD flue gas desulphurisation

GDP gross domestic product

GE genetically engineered

GEAR Growth, Employment and Redistribution strategy

GECOL General Electricity Company of Libya

GEPC General Electric Power Company Limited

GESCO Global Electricity Services Company

GHG greenhouse gas

GHS General Household Survey

GNU Government of National Unity

GVA Gross Value Added

HCB Hidroelectrica de Cahora Bassa

HSRC Human Sciences Research Council

IA Implementation Agreement

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ICA Infrastructure Consortium for Africa

ICEM International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General

Workers’ Unions

ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre

IDA International Development Association

IDC Industrial Development Corporation

IEA International Energy Agency

IEP Integrated Energy Planning

IFC International Finance Corporation

IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

IGG Inspector-General of Government

IHA International Hydropower Association

IIEC International Institute for Energy Conservation

IMF International Monetary Fund

INEP integrated national electrification programme

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPP Independent power producer

IPPF Infrastructure Project Preparation Facility

IPTL Independent Power Tanzania Ltd

IRN International Rivers Network

Iscor Iron and Steel Corporation

IT information technology

IUCN World Conservation Union

JI Joint Implementation

LNB low-NOx

burners

MDG Millennium Development Goal

MEC minerals-energy complex

MIG Municipal Infrastructure Grant

MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency

MP Member of Parliament

MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework

Naledi National Labour and Economic Development Institute

NAPE National Association of Professional Environmentalists

NBI Nile Basin Initiative

NECSA Nuclear Energy Corporation of South Africa

NELF National Electrification Forum

NEMA National Environmental Management Authority

NEP national electrification programme

NEPA National Electric Power Authority

NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development

NERSA National Energy Regulator of South Africa

NFA National Framework Agreement

NGO non-governmental organisation

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A C R O N Y M S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S

NNR National Nuclear Regulator

NP National Party

NPT Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

NRM National Resistance Movement

NUM National Union of Mineworkers

NUMSA National Union of Metalworkers

NWSC National Water and Sewerage Corporation

O&M operations and maintenance

OCGT open cycle gas turbine

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OKM Operation Khanyisa Movement

OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries

PAC Pan African Congress

PBMR Pebble Bed Modular Reactor

PC Pulverised Coal

PCF Prototype Carbon Fund

PCRF Phiri Concerned Residents Forum

PDD Project Design Document

PEAC Pool Energétique d’Afrique Centrale

PERD public enterprise reform and divestiture

PF Pulverised Fuel

PM particulate matter

PPA Power Purchase Agreement

PPIAF Public Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility

PRG Partial Risk Guarantee

PSRC Parastatal Reform Commission

PV photovoltaic

PWR pressurised water reactor

RCEW Rand Central Electric Works

RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme

REA/REF Rural Energy Agency and Fund

RED Regional Electricity Distributor

RET renewable energy technology

RMPSC Rand Mines Power Supply Company

SABS South African Bureau of Standards

SACAN South African Climate Action Network

SACP South African Communist Party

SADC Southern African Development Community

Sanco South African National Civics Organisation

SANERI South African National Energy Research Institute

SAPM Southern African Power Market

SAPP Southern African Power Pool

SAR South African Railways

SAR&H South African Railways and Harbours

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SCR Soweto Concerned Residents

SECC Soweto Electricity Crisis Committee

SHS solar home system

SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency

SNEL Société Nationale d’Électricité

SNO second national fixed line operator

SoeCo State Owned Enterprises Company

Stats SA Statistics South Africa

STS Standard Transfer Specification

SWAPHEP Society for Water and Public Health Protection

TANESCO Tanzania Electricity Supply Company Limited

TAP Trans Africa Projects

TNBS Tanzanian National Bureau of Statistics

TNC transnational corporation

TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission

TREC tradeable renewable energy certificate

TSI Technology Services International

UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics

UCB Uganda Commercial Bank

UCG underground coal gasification

UDF United Democratic Front

UEB Uganda Electricity Board

UEDCL Uganda Electricity Distribution Company Ltd

UEGCL Uganda Electricity Generation Company Ltd

UETCL Uganda Electricity Transmission Company Ltd

UN United Nations

UNEA UN-Energy/Africa

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

URC Uranium Research Committee

US EIA US Energy Information Administration

UWS Uganda Wildlife Society

VFPC Victoria Falls Power Company

VFTPC Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power Company

WAPP West African Power Pool

WCD World Commission on Dams

Wesgro Western Cape Investment and Trade Promotion Agency

Westcor West African Power Corridor/Western Power Corridor Project

WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development

ZESA Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority

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A C R O N Y M S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S

Technical abbreviations

Ω ohm

A ampere

AC alternating current

BTU British thermal unit – a unit of energy used in the USA to describe the

heat value (energy content) of fuels. A BTU is defined as the amount of

heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one

degree Fahrenheit.

DC direct current

GWh gigawatt-hour

GWh(e) gigawatt-hours of electrical output – nominally one-third the thermal

output of a generator

HVAC high-voltage AC

HVDC high-voltage DC

J joule

kWh kilowatt-hour

m/s metres per second

MW megawatt

MW(e) see GWh(e) above

rpm revolutions per minute

TWh terawatt-hour

V volt

W watt

Watt-hour units

1 watt-hour: one watt-hour is the amount of electricity expended by a one-watt load

(e.g. a light bulb) drawing power for one hour. A 50-watt light bulb will

consume 500 watt-hours of energy if left on for 10 hours.

103 watt-hours = 1 kWh (kilowatt-hour)

106 watt-hours = 1 MWh (megawatt-hour)

109 watt-hours = 1 GWh (gigawatt-hour)

1012 watt-hours = 1 TWh (terawatt-hour)

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Acknowledgements

This book is a product of the Municipal Services Project, a multi-partner research,

policy and educational initiative examining the restructuring of municipal services

in southern Africa. The Project’s central research interests are the impacts of

decentralisation, privatisation, cost recovery and community participation on the

delivery of basic services to the rural and urban poor, and how these reforms

impact on public, industrial and mental health.

Research results are disseminated in the form of books, occasional papers, a project

newsletter, academic articles, popular media, television documentaries and the

internet (see www.queensu.ca/msp for a full listing of material).

Research partners include Rhodes University (South Africa), the International

Labour Research and Information Group (South Africa), Queen’s University

(Canada), the Human Sciences Research Council (South Africa), Equinet

(Zimbabwe), the South African Municipal Workers’ Union, and the Canadian

Union of Public Employees. The Project is funded by the International

Development Research Centre of Canada.

My first thanks go to the contributors to this collection, most of whom have spent

a lifetime researching and writing about these issues. It was a privilege to work with

such talented and dedicated people.

I would also like to thank Garry Rosenberg of HSRC Press, who has been a

supportive and professional publisher, committed to providing publicly accessible

academic research. Peer review comments from anonymous referees on the

original manuscript were very useful, as was input from Ben Fine and Vishnu

Padayachee on some of the conceptual material.

Assistance from Karen Cocq and Derek Brine was instrumental in pulling together

data for the Statistical Appendix. Thanks also to Toby Moorsom for help with

literature reviews on (sub)imperialism and Mélanie Josée Davidson for technical

assistance with some of the figures. Permission to reproduce various illustrations

was kindly provided by FT Sparrow, Brian Bowen and Zuwei Yu of Purdue

University, AV Smirnov of West Virginia University, the SASI Group (University of

Sheffield) and Mark Newman (University of Michigan).

This book is dedicated to researchers and activists on the ground in (southern)

Africa struggling for a more just and sustainable form of production and

distribution of electricity on the continent. A luta continua!

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xv

INTRODUCTION

The importance of being electric

David A McDonald

This book is about the importance of electricity in Africa. Although much of the

discussion focuses on South Africa (largely because that country dominates the

electricity sector on the continent), there are important lessons to be learned for

the continent as a whole, not least because of the aggressive expansion of South

African capital and the South African state into other parts of Africa to develop and

control the electricity market.

At the centre of this discussion is a paradox: Africa is the most under-supplied

region in the world when it comes to electricity, but its economies are utterly

dependent on it. This contradiction is explained in part by the enormous

inequalities in electricity access, with mining and industry receiving abundant

supplies of cheap power whilst more than 80 per cent of the continent’s residents

remain off the power grid (see the maps in Appendix 2 for comparisons within

Africa and with other regions of the world).

Africa is not unique in this respect, but the inequities of infrastructure investments

and decision-making control are particularly pronounced here – especially in

South Africa – due to the inherent unevenness of what I will call ‘electric

capitalism’. I discuss this phrase at length in Chapter 1, outlining both its

theoretical and metaphorical utility (and limitations). My central argument is that

electricity has become an integral part of all capitalist activity and that we can best

understand the inequities of its availability and affordability by looking at the

(neo-liberal) market dynamics within which it operates. Electricity is obviously

not the only factor to consider when studying capitalism on the continent, but

given the electricity-intensive nature of the region’s economies, and massive plans

for electricity expansion, it is essential to investigate how electricity fits into the

larger dynamics of capitalist accumulation and crisis in Africa.

Chapter 1 also discusses the use of the phrase ‘recolonising Africa’, which forms part

of the subtitle of this book. An anticipated doubling of electricity needs within

South Africa over the next 20 years, coupled with growing foreign direct investment

on the continent by South African capital, has led to plans for a rapid expansion of

electricity generation and distribution capacity on a regional, and even continental,

scale. South African capital (public and private) is not the only party interested in

this electricity expansion – American, European and Asian firms are also active in

Africa – but South Africa is particularly dependent on this electric power capacity

growth, and is well poised to direct and control this particular set of resources.

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