Tài liệu Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture doc

Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture

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Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in

Cage Culture

Edited by

Patrick T.K. Woo

University of Guelph

Guelph, Canada

David W. Bruno

FRS Marine Laboratory

Aberdeen, UK

and

L.H. Susan Lim

University of Malaya

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

CABI Publishing

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CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International

CABI Publishing

CAB International

Wallingford

Oxon OX10 8DE

UK

Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111

Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508

E-mail: cabi@cabi.org

Web site: www.cabi-publishing.org

CABI Publishing

10 E 40th Street

Suite 3203

New York, NY 10016

USA

Tel: +1 212 481 7018

Fax: +1 212 686 7993

E-mail: cabi-nao@cabi.org

©CAB International 2002. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may

be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by

photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the

copyright owners.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London,

UK.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Diseases and disorders of finfish in cage culture/edited by Patrick

T.K. Woo, David W. Bruno, and Susan L.H. Lim.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN 0-85199-443-1

1. Fishes--Diseases. 2. Cage aquaculture. I. Woo, P. T. K. II.

Bruno, D. W. (David W.) III. Lim, Susan L. H.

SH171 .D53 2002

639.3--dc21 2002001302

ISBN 0 85199 443 1

Typeset by AMA DataSet, UK

Printed and bound in the UK by Biddles Ltd, Guildford and King’s Lynn

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Contents

Contributors vii

Preface ix

PART I – GENERAL

1. Introduction and History of Cage Culture 1

Chua Thia Eng and Elsie Tech

2. Overview of Cage Culture 41

Malcolm C.M. Beveridge

PART II – COLDWATER FISH

3. Infectious Diseases of Coldwater Fish in Marine and Brackish Water 61

Michael L. Kent and Trygve T. Poppe

4. Infectious Diseases of Coldwater Fish in Fresh Water 107

Laural Brown and David W. Bruno

5. Non-infectious Disorders of Coldwater Fish 171

David J. Speare

PART III – WARMWATER FISH

6. Infectious Diseases of Warmwater Fish in Marine and Brackish Waters 193

Leong Tak Seng and Angelo Colorni

7. Infectious Diseases of Warmwater Fish in Fresh Water 231

Gilda D. Lio-Po and L.H. Susan Lim

8. Non-infectious Disorders of Warmwater Fish 283

William E. Hawkins, John W. Fournie and Nantarika Chansue

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PART IV

9. Sporadic, Emerging Diseases and Disorders 305

David W. Bruno and Patrick T.K. Woo

Index 345

vi Contents

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Contributors

M.C.M. Beveridge, Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK.

New address: FRS Freshwater Laboratory, Faskally, Pitlochry, Perthshire PH16 5LB,

UK.

L.L. Brown, National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Marine Bioscience,

1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada.

D.W. Bruno, Fisheries Research Services, The Marine Laboratory, PO Box 101, Victoria

Road, Torry, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, UK.

N. Chansue, Veterinary Medical Aquatic Animal Research Center, Faculty of Veterinary

Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Road, Patumwan, Bangkok 10330,

Thailand.

A. Colorni, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, National Center for

Mariculture, PO Box 1212, Eilat 88112, Israel.

T.E. Chua, Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia

(PEMSEA), DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines.

J.W. Fournie, US Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Ecology Division, 1 Sabine Island

Drive, Gulf Breeze, Florida 32561, USA.

W.E. Hawkins, Department of Coastal Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Ocean

Springs, Mississippi 39564-7000, USA.

M.L. Kent, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Biological Sciences Branch, Pacific

Biological Station, Nanaimo, British Columbia V9R 5K6, Canada.

T.S. Leong, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.

L.H.S. Lim, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia.

G.D. Lio-Po, Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center,

Tigbauan, 5021 Iloilo, Philippines.

T.T. Poppe, Department of Morphology, Genetics and Aquatic Biology, The Norwegian

School of Veterinary Science, PO Box 8196 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway.

D.J. Speare, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College,

Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island C1A 4P3, Canada.

E. Tech, Asian Fisheries Society, 25-A Mayaman Street, UP Village, Quezon City,

Philippines.

P.T.K. Woo, Axelrod Institute of Ichthyology and Department of Zoology, College of

Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada.

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Preface

In many parts of the world the primary source of animal protein for humans is finfish. The

intensive culture of finfish has grown significantly since the 1980s partly because of the

dramatic decline in the natural fish stocks and the increase in fish consumption by the

ever-increasing population. For example, the worldwide consumption of fish between

1990 and 1997 increased by 30% while the capture fisheries increased only by 9%. The

demand for fish is expected to continue to increase, especially as the more affluent

consumers in the developed countries become more aware of the beneficial effects of fish

(e.g. marine fish are an excellent source of polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids).

Aquaculture is the only solution to the demand as it can provide consistently high quality

fish protein year round. The industry is already considered the single fastest-growing food

production process in the world.

The cage culture of finfish, especially mariculture, is becoming more popular because

there are many economic advantages associated with this approach. However, it also has

problems and one of them is disease. Disease outbreaks tend to occur more often when fish

are raised under intensive culture conditions, and consequently both infectious and

non-infectious diseases are important constraints to the industry.

Our primary objective is to produce an authoritative and practical volume on diseases

and disorders of finfish in cage culture. We hope the book will also alert the industry to

potential and/or emerging disease problems in specific regions of the world, and to point out

gaps in our knowledge so as to stimulate further research. This book is designed for

aquaculturalists who are using or intend to use cage culture. It will also be useful to fish

health consultants (e.g. veterinarians), microbiologists, parasitologists, fish pathologists,

and managers and directors of diagnostic laboratories. Each chapter is written by inter￾national experts who have personal experience or expertise on diseases and their diagnosis,

and/or solutions to problems associated with the cage culture of finfish.

This book is divided into four parts – the first part is on the cage culture system, the

second and third are on diseases/disorders in warmwater fish (water temperature above

15°C) and in coldwater fish, respectively. In each of these parts, there are three chapters –

one on infectious diseases in fresh water (zero salinity), one on estuarine and marine

diseases and one on non-infectious disorders. The final part on emerging diseases is to alert

the industry to potential problems. We hope this division of the book will make it easier for

the reader to access information on known diseases/disorders within a group of fish. The

arrangement will also help to highlight similarities and differences in disease problems

between groups of fish (e.g. between marine warmwater and marine coldwater fish). How￾ever, such divisions also create some minor problems, e.g. a few pathogens have been

ix

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isolated from both seawater and freshwater fish, so our authors and editors have worked

closely to avoid extensive overlaps in coverage. For example, furunculosis is in Chapter 4,

with only brief reference to it in Chapter 3, because it is often seen in freshwater fish.

Similarly, important infectious agents (e.g. Piscirickettsia salmonis) of marine fish (Chapter

3) are only briefly mentioned in Chapter 4 because of their lesser importance to freshwater

fish.

There are books on infectious and on non-infectious diseases/disorders of fish (e.g. Fish

Diseases and Disorders, Volumes 1–3, CAB International), but there are none devoted specif￾ically to problems associated with cage culture of finfish. Problems encountered in cage cul￾ture are in some ways different from those using other rearing methods. In cage culture, fish

may be exposed constantly to ubiquitous pathogens. Also, the stress associated with captive

rearing creates opportunities for disease, and to a lesser extent non-infectious disorders, to

become significant causes of morbidity and mortality. Transmissions of infectious agents are

also enhanced, and fish become more susceptible to disease partly because their immune

system may be compromised due to prolonged exposure to pollutants in the water and/or

crowding stress. The impact and spread of new and/or emerging diseases are also important,

and are influenced by factors that include international trade in eggs or fry, unauthorized

transportation of fish, and contact with migratory or naive fish species. Under natural condi￾tions these agents in their natural hosts may not be considered important pathogens, but in

an expanded geographical and/or host range, under different environmental conditions or

temperatures, they may lead to epizootics with serious consequential economic impact.

As the demand for animal protein increases in the new millennium, we expect a signifi￾cant increase in cage culture activity in many countries. This will be true especially in

countries with limited usable land mass but with relatively long coastlines and/or extensive

river–lake systems. We hope this book will fill a niche and be useful to colleagues who are

active in the industry.

Patrick T.K. Woo

David W. Bruno

L.H. Susan Lim

x Preface

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1 Introduction and History of Cage Culture

Chua Thia Eng1 and Elsie Tech2

1Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA),

DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines; 2Asian Fisheries Society

25-A Mayaman Street, UP Village, Quezon City, Philippines

History of Cage Culture

Open sea activities, such as cage and pen

culture, are viewed by many stakeholders in

the industry as the aquaculture system of

the millennium. Fish production from cages

and pens (both in freshwater and marine

environments) contributes significantly to

total foodfish produced. Cage culture has

made possible the large-scale production of

commercial finfish and will probably be

the most efficient and economical way of

raising fish.

Aquaculturists realize the need to limit

further conversion of wetlands and man￾groves into traditional aquaculture farms.

We face a situation where even freshwater

ecosystems have reached critical levels

with respect to their carrying capacities.

The depletion of ocean and coastal fishery

resources in some areas has led to the

development of marine cage culture.

The earliest record of cage culture

practices dates back to the late 1800s in

Southeast Asia, particularly in the fresh￾water lakes and river systems of Kampuchea

(Coche, 1976; Pantulu, 1979; Beveridge,

1987). The fish cultured included snake￾heads (Channa spp.), catfishes (Pangasius

spp.) and gobies (Oxycleotris spp.). By 1995,

more than 5000 fish farmers were engaged

in cage culture in the Mekong river system

around Phnom Penh (Thana, 1995). There

were also reports of similar culture

practices in Indonesia in the 1920s and

1940s (Hickling, 1962).

Marine fish farming in cages traces its

beginnings to the 1950s in Japan where fish

farming research at the Fisheries Laboratory

of the Kinki University led to the com￾mercial culture of the yellowtail, Seriola

quinqueradiata. Takashima and Arimoto

(2000), however, traced back a history of 200

years where wooden farm net cages were

being operated for anchovies or sardines or

bait for skipjack. Similar cages were later

used for yellowtail culture in Japan and

developed into a significant industry as

early as 1960. The cage culture of common

carp (Cyprinus carpio) in lakes also started

at this time (Kuronuma, 1968). Since the

1970s, Thailand has developed cage culture

techniques for two important marine finfish:

the seabream (Pagrus major) and grouper

(Epinephelus spp.) (Coche, 1976). Chua and

Teng (1978) pioneered the development of

cage culture methods/designs for groupers

in Malaysia, although large-scale cage farm￾ing in marine waters really gained ground in

the 1980s and in inland waters in the 1990s

(Shariff and Nagaraj, 2000). Korea started

growing a European variety of common carp

and maintained yellowtail in holding cage

enclosures in the late 1970s. By the end

of 1980, cage culture of the olive flounder

(Paralichthys olivacens) and black rockfish

©CAB International 2002. Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture

(eds P.T.K. Woo, D.W. Bruno and L.H.S. Lim) 1

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(Sebastes schlegeli) was established, and

developed into a successful aquaculture

industry in the 1990s (Kim, 2000). Cage

culture of groupers (Epinephelus spp.) in the

Philippines has been practised since the

1980s. Mariculture of milkfish in the 1990s

led to the further growth and development of

the industry (Marte et al., 2000).

In Europe, cage culture of rainbow trout

(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in fresh water began

in the late 1950s and, in Norway, Atlantic

salmon (Salmo salar) followed in the 1960s.

More than 40% of its rainbow trout comes

from freshwater cages (Beveridge, 1987).

Salmonid culture is currently dominated by

production from Norway, Scotland and

Chile. Cage culture of fish was adopted in the

USA in 1964 (Coche, 1976). Records show

commercial production of channel catfish

(Ictalurus punctatus) in freshwater cages

(Collins, 1970a,b, 1972; Trotter, 1970;

Bennet, 1971; Brett, 1974; Novotny, 1975).

Cage culture in Africa, however, is still

in its infant stage (ADB/NACA, 1998). In

Central Africa, there was no real practical

experience in cage culture before 1974.

Very limited observations were recorded for

Clarias lazera (de Kimpe and Micha, 1974).

Semi-intensive rearing was done in Lake

Victoria, Tanzania, using Nile tilapia

(Tilapia zillii) (Ibrahim et al., 1974).

Research initiatives on intensive production

of commercial sized Tilapia nilotica were

carried out in Lake Kossou, Ivory Coast

(Coche, 1974, 1975; Shehadeh, 1974). Cook

(1995) reported that it was only in the 1980s

that the potential of aquaculture in South

Africa gained grounds with respect to

becoming a viable commercial industry.

Freshwater aquaculture was limited to

availability of water while mariculture had

to rely on only 3000 km of coastlines (the

majority of which did not have sheltered

bays or lagoons). In the years that followed,

efforts were geared towards improvement in

the culture of tilapia and cage design (Coche,

1976).

Currently many fish species have been

cultivated in various designs and sizes of

cages in Asia, Europe and other parts of

the world (Table 1.1). Tilapia and carp pre￾dominate in freshwater cage culture in Asia,

while salmonids are commonly farmed in

Europe and the Americas.

2 T.E. Chua and E. Tech

Species cultured Country Reference

Anguillidae

Anguilla japonica (eel)

Bagridae

Mystus nemerus (mystid catfish)

Chanidae

Chanos chanos (milkfish)

Channidae

Channa macrocephalus

Channa micropeltes (snakehead)

Channa striatus

Giant snakehead

Characidae

Colossoma macropomum

(Amazonian fish tambaqui)

Cichlidae

Black tilapia

Oreochromis mortimeri

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)

China

Malaysia

Philippines

Thailand

Cambodia

Vietnam

Vietnam

Malaysia

Brazil

Malaysia

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe

Bangladesh

Malaysia

Yuan (1991)

Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)

Guerrero (1996); Ramos (1996); Bagarinao (1998);

Marte et al. (2000)

Lin (1990)

Thana (1995)

Pantulu (1976); Thuoc (1995)

Pantulu (1976); Thuoc (1995)

Ang et al. (1988)

Chellappa et al. (1995)

Ang et al. (1988)

Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)

Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)

Mazid (1995)

Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)

Table 1.1a. Major species of freshwater finfishes cultured in cages.

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Introduction and History of Cage Culture 3

Species cultured Country Reference

Red tilapia

Sarotherodon aureus

Sarotherodon esculentus

Sarotherodon galilaeus

Sarotherodon mossambicus

Sarotherodon mossambicus ×

S. honorum (hybrid)

Sarotherodon niloticus

Sarotherodon spilirus niger (tilapia)

Tilapia

Tilapia

Tilapia

Tilapia heudeloti

Tilapia nilotica

Tilapia niloticus

Tilapia rendalli

Tilapia zillii

Clariidae

Clarias gariepinus

Clarias lazera (Nile catfish)

Clarias macrocephalus (catfish)

Cyprinidae

Abramis brana (bream)

Aristichthys nobilis (bighead carp)

Philippines

Thailand

Egypt

Malaysia

USA

El Salvador

Puerto Rico

USA

Tanzania

Nigeria

Philippines

Taiwan

Guatemala

USA

Sri Lanka

Ivory Coast

Nigeria

Kenya

Philippines

Brazil

Dominican

Republic

Togo

USA

Sierra Leone

Togo

Dominican

Republic

Nigeria

Colombia

Zimbabwe

Tanzania

Togo

Kenya

Nigeria

Vietnam

South Africa

Egypt

Thailand

Vietnam

Russia

Nepal

Santiago and Arcilla (1993); Lopez (1995)

Chiayvareesajja et al. (1990); Lin (1990)

Ishak and Hassanen (1987)

Ang et al. (1988)

Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972)

Bayne et al. (1976); Ramirez (1977); Sanchez

(1978); Street (1978)

Jordan and Pagan (1973); Miller and Ballantine

(1974)

Williams et al. (1974)

Ibrahim et al. (1976)

Konikoff (1975); Ita (1976)

Guerrero (1975); IFP (1976); Pantastico and Baldia

(1979)

Maruyama and Ishida (1976)

Bardach et al. (1972)

Suffern et al. (1978)

Anon. (1980); Muthukumarana and Wcerakoon

(1987)

Coche (1975, 1976, 1977, 1978); Campbell (1976);

Shehadeh (1976); de Kimpe (1978); Amoikon

(1987)

Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)

Haller (1974)

PCARRD (1981); Aragon et al. (1985); Guerrero

(1985, 1996)

FAO (1977)

Olivo (1987)

Issifou and Amegavie (1987)

McGinty (1991)

Iscandari (1987)

Issifou and Amegavie (1987)

Olivo (1987)

Ali (1987)

Patino (1976); McLarney (1978); Popma (1978)

Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)

Ibrahim et al. (1974)

Issifou and Amegavie (1987)

Haller (1974)

Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)

Tuan and Hambrey (2000)

Hoffman and Prinsloo (1992)

Ishak (1987)

Lin (1990)

Tuan and Hambrey (2000)

Ziliukiene (1994)

Swar and Pradhan (1992); Pradhan and Pantha

(1995)

Continued

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4 T.E. Chua and E. Tech

Species cultured Country Reference

Carps

Carps

Carps

Cirrhinus microbis

Cirrhinus sp.

Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass

carp)

Cyprinids

Cyprinus carpio (common carp)

(mirror carp)

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix

(silver carp)

(Javanese carp)

Leptobarbus hoeveni (slender

carp/sultan fish)

Nile carp

River carp

Eleotridae

Goby

Oxyeleotris marmoratus (sand

goby)

Ictaluridae

Ictalurus punctatus (Channel

catfish)

Moronidae

Morone chryops × M. saxatilis

(sunshine bass)

Osphronemidae

Osphronemus gourami

(giant gouramy)

Malaysia

Philippines

Sri Lanka

India

Indonesia

Iran

Cambodia

Cambodia

Malaysia

Nepal

Sri Lanka

Vietnam

Egypt

Netherlands

India

Philippines

Poland

Russia

Nepal

Indonesia

Korea

Egypt

Israel

Turkey

Nepal

Egypt

India

Malaysia

Vietnam

Malaysia

Indonesia

Egypt

Malaysia

Malaysia

Thailand

Vietnam

USA

USA

Indonesia

Malaysia

Ang et al. (1988)

Fermin (1990); Marte et al. (2000)

Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)

Basavaraja (1994)

Costa-Pierce and Effendi (1988)

Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)

Thana (1995)

Thana (1995)

Ang et al. (1988)

Pradhan and Pantha (1995)

Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)

Lovatelli (1997)

Siemelink et al. (1982); Ishak (1987)

Huisman (1979)

Bandyopadhyay et al. (1991)

Lopez (1995)

Filipiak (1991); Mamcarz (1992)

Evtushenko (1994)

Pradhan and Pantha (1995)

Costa-Pierce and Roem (1990); Zainal et al.

(1990)

Kim et al. (1992)

Hamza (1996)

Viola and Lahav (1991); Wolhfarth and Moav

(1991)

Erden (1987)

Swar and Pradhan (1992); Pradhan and Pantha

(1995)

Hamza (1996)

Sivakami and Ayyappan (1991)

Ang et al. (1988)

Thuoc (1995); Lovatelli (1997)

Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)

Dahril and Ahmad (1990)

Hamza (1996)

Ang et al. (1988)

Ang et al. (1988)

Menasveta (2000)

Lovatelli (1997)

Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972); Collins

and Delmendo (1979); Parker (1988); Masser and

Duarte (1992); Burtle and Newton (1993); Webster

et al. (1994)

Kelly and Kohler, 1996; Pagan (1970); Suwanasart

(1971); Pagan-Font (1975)

Ang et al. (1988)

Ang et al. (1988)

Table 1.1a. Continued.

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