smithells metals reference book 7e ppt

Smithells

SEmH EDITION

EDITED BY

EA.. BRANDES & GOBo B

Smithells Metals Reference Book

Smithells Metals Reference Book

Seventh Edition

Edited by

E. A. Brandes CEng, BSc(Lond), ARCS, FIM

and

G. B. Brook DMet(She$), FEng, FIM

UTTERWORTH

EINEMANN

Butterw orth-Heinemann

Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP

225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041

A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd

-@A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group

OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON

JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI

Fmt published 1949

Second edition 1955

Third edition 1962

Fourth edition 1967

Fifth edition 1976

Reprinted 1978

Sixth edition 1983

Seventh edition 1992

Paperback edition (with corrections) 1998, 1999

Q Reed Educational and Pmfessiond Publishing Ltd 1992

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced in any material form (including

photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic

means and whether or not transiently or incidentally

to some other use of this publication) without the

written permission of the copyright holder except

in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,

Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a

licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd.

90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England WlP 9HE.

Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission

to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed

to the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for tl& book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Libmy of Congress

ISBN 0 7506 3624 6

Printed and bound in Great Brihin by The Bath Press, Bath

Contents

Preface to the Seventh Edition

Acknowledgements

List of contributors

xv

xvi

xvii

1 Related specifications

1.1 Related specifications

Related specifications for steels

Related specifications for aluminium alloys

Related specifications for copper alloys

Related specifications for magnesium alloys

1-1

1-1

1-1

1-7

1-8

1-9

2 Introductory tables 2- 1

2.1 Conversion factors 2-1

SI units - Conversion to and from SI units - Temperature conversions,

IPTS-49 to IPTS-68 - Corrosion conversion factors - Sieve Nos to

aperture size - Temperature scale conversions

Algebra - Series and progressions - Trigonometry - Mensuration - Co￾ordinate geometry - Calculus

2.2 Mathematical formulae 2-12

3 General physical and chemical constants 3-1

Atomic weights and atomic numbers - General physical constants -

Moments of inertia - Periodic system

Radioactive isotopes and radiation sources

Positron emitters - Beta energies and half-lives - Gamma energies and

half-lives - Nuclides for alpha, beta, gamma and neutron sources

3.1 3-5

4 X-ray analysis of metallic materials

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Excitation of X-rays

X-ray wavelengths

4.3 X-ray techniques

X-ray diffraction - Specific applications - Crystal geometry

4.4 X-ray results

Metal working - Crystal structure - Atomic and ionic radii

V

4-1

4-1

4-1

4-1 1

4-36

vi Contents

4.5 X-ray fluorescence

4.6 Radiation screening

Definitions - Concrete screening - Lead screening

442

444

5 Crystallography 5- 1

5.1 The structure of crystals 5-1

5.2 The Schoenflies system of point- and space-groups notation 5-3

5.3 The Hermann-Mauguin system of point- and space-group notation 5-3

Translation groups - Symmetry elements - The point group - The

space group

Notes on the space-group tables

6 Crystal chemistry

6.1

6.2 Structural details

Structures of metals, metalloids and their compounds

6-1

6-1

6-36

7 Metallurgically important minerals 7-1

7.1 Ore grades and sources 7-2

8 Thermochemical data 8-1

8.1 Symbols 8-1

8.2 Changes of phase 8-1

Elements - Intermetallic compounds - Metallurgically important

compounds

Elements - Intermetallic compounds - Selenides and tellurides -

Intermetallic phases

Liquid binary metallic systems

Borides - Carbides - Nitrides - Silicides - Oxides - Sulphides - Halides -

Silicates and carbonates - Compound (double) oxides - Phosphides -

Phosphides dissociation pressures - Sulphides dissociation pressures

Elements - Alloy phases and intermetallic compounds - Borides -

Carbides - Nitrides - Silicides - Oxides - Sulphides, selenides and

tellurides - Halides

Elements - Halides, oxides

8.3 Heat, entropy and free energy of formation 8-8

8.4 Metallic systems of unlimited mutual solubility 8-16

8.5 Metallurgically important compounds 8-21

8.6 Molar heat capacities and specific heats 8-41

8.7 Vapour pressures 8-54

9 Physical properties of molten salts 9-1

9.1 Density of pure molten salts 9-1

9.2 Densities of molten salt systems 9-7

9.3 9-19

9.5 Electrical conductivity of molten salt systems 9-28

Density of some solid inorganic compounds at room temperature

9.4 Electrical conductivity of pure molten salts 9-20

Contents vii

9.6 Surface tension of pure molten salts

9.7 Surface tension of binary molten salt systems

9.8 Viscosity of pure molten salts

9.9 Viscosity of molten binary salt systems

942

945

9-5 1

9-52

10 Metallography 10-1

10.1 Macroscopic examination 10-1

10.2 Microscopic examination 10-1

Etching reagents for macroscopic examination - Plastic for mounting -

Attack polishing - Electrolytic polishing solutions - Reagents for

chemical polishing - Etching - Colour etching - Etching for

dislocations

Aluminium - Antimony and bismuth - Beryllium - Cadmium -

Chromium - Cobalt - Copper - Gold - Indium - Iron and steel -

Cast iron - Lead - Magnesium - Molybdenum - Nickel - Niobium -

Platinum group metals - Silicon - Silver - Tantalum - Tin -

Titanium - Tungsten - Uranium - Zinc - Zirconium - Bearing metals -

Cemented carbides and other hard alloys - Powdered and sintered metals

Transmission electron microscopy - Extraction - Replica techniques for

industrial alloys - Thin foil techniques for industrial alloys - Scanning

electron microscopy - Electron spectroscopy

10.3 Metallographic methods for specific metals 10-22

10.4 Electron metallography 1M2

10.5 Quantitative image analysis 1M9

10.6 Scanning acoustic microscopy 10-70

11 Equilibrium diagrams 11-1

1 1.1

1 1.2 Equilibrium diagrams

11.3 Acknowledgements

11.4 Ternary and higher systems

Index of binary diagrams

Binary systems

11-1

11-7

11486

11496

12 Gas-metal systems 12-1

12.1 The solution of gases in metals 12-1

Dilute solutions of diatomic gases - Complex @-metal systems -

Solutions of hydrogen - Solutions of nitrogen - Solutions of oxygen - Solutions of the noble gases - Theoretical and practical aspects of gas￾metal equilibria

13 Diffusion in metals 13-1

13.1 Introduction 13-1

13.2 Methods of measuring D 13-4

Steady-state methods - Non-steady-state methods - Indirect methods,

not based on Fick’s laws

13.3 Mechanisms of diffusion 13-7

Selfdiffusion in solid elements - Tracer impurity diffusion coefficients -

Diflusion in homogeneous alloys

13.4 Chemical diffusion coefficient measurements 13-70

viii Contents

13.5 Grain boundary self-dimusion

13.6 Self-diffusion in liquid metals

13-116

13-118

14 General physical properties 14-1

14.1 The physical properties of pure metals

Physical properties of pure metals at normal temperatures - Physical

properties of pure metals at elevated temperatures

14.2 The physical properties of liquid metals

Density - Surface tension - Viscosity - Specific heat, thermal

conductivity and electrical resistivity

Aluminium alloys at normal temperatures

14.3 The physical properties of aluminium and aluminium alloys

14.4 The physical properties of copper and copper alloys

14.5 The physical properties of magnesium and magnesium alloys

14.6 The physical properties of nickel and nickel alloys

14.7 The physical properties of titanium and titanium alloys

14.8 The physical properties of zinc and zinc alloys

14.9 The physical properties of zirconium alloys

14.10 The physical properties of pure tin

14.11 The physical properties of steels

Normal and elevated temperatures - Low temperature properties of steels

14-1

14-45

14-14

14-16

14-19

1422

14-25

14-26

1426

14-26

14-27

15 Elastic properties, damping capacity and shape

memory alloys

15-1

15.1 Elastic properties 15-1

Elastic constants of polycrystalline metals - Young's modulus -

Rigidity modulus - Bulk modulus - Poisson's ratio -

Elastic compliances and elastic stiffnesses of single crystals -

Room temperature - Cubic systems - Hexagonal systems - Trigonal

systems - Tetragonal systems - Orthorhombic systems

Specific damping capacity of commercial alloys - Anelastic damping

Mechanical properties of shape memory alloys - Compositions and

transformation temperatures - Titanium-nickel shape memory alloy

properties

15.2 Damping capacity 154

15.3 Shape memory alloys 15-36

16 Temperature measurement and thermoelectric properties 161

16.1 Temperature measurement 161

16.2 Thermocoude reference tables 16-4

Fixed points of ITS90 - Thermal electromotive force of elements and

some binary alloys - Absolute thermoelectric power

17 Radiating properties of metals 17-1

Total and spectra emissivity - Temperature measurement and emissivity - Emissivity values, spectral and total - Emissivity of oxidized metals

Contents ix

18 Electron emission 18-1

18.1 Thermionic emission 18-1

Elements - Adsorbed layers - Refractory metal compounds - Practical

cathodes

Photoelectric work functions - Emitting surfaces

Emission coefficients - Oxidized alloys - Photocells - Insulating metal

compounds

18.2 Photoelectric emission 18-4

18.3 Secondary emission 18-5

18.4 Auger emission 18-7

18.5 Electron emission under positive ion bombardment 18-8

18.6 Field emission 18-9

19 Electrical properties 19-1

19.1 Resistivity 19-1

19.2 Superconductivity 19-7

Pure metals - Alloys - Specific copper alloys - EC aluminium

Transition temperatures and critical fields of elements -

Superconducting compounds

20 Magnetic materials and their properties

20.1 Magnetic materials

20.2 Permanent magnetic materials

Steels - cast irons - Alnico alloys - Ferrites - Rare earths and cobalt

alloys - Neodymiun iron boron - Bonded materials

Silicon iron alloys - Ferrites - Garnets - Nickel iron alloys -

Amorphous alloy materials

20.3 Magnetically soft materials

20.4 High saturation and constant permeability alloys

20.5 Magnetic powder core materials

20.6 Magnetic temperature compensating materials

20.7 Non magnetic steels and cast irons - Units and definitions

20-1

20-1

2&2

20-9

20-1 7

20-17

20-17

20-18

21 Mechanical testing 21-1

21.1 Hardness testing 21-1

Brinell - Rockwell - Rockwell superficial hardness - Vickers - Micro￾hardness - Hardness conversion tables

Test piece dimensions - standards

21.2 Tensile testing 21-8

21.3 Impact testing of notched bars 21-10

Izod - Charpy 21-10

21.4 Plane strain fracture toughness testing 21-12

Test pieces - Calculation and interpretation of results - Plane stress

COD - Recording test results

x Contents

22 Mechanical properties of metals and alloys 22-1

22.1 Aluminium and aluminium alloys

Alloy and temper designation system - Mechanical properties at room,

elevated and low temperatures - Creep and fatigue

Standard specifications - Mechanical properties at room, elevated and

low temperature - Fatigue - Impact - Creep - Tough pitch copper - Silver alloys

22.2 Copper and copper alloys

22.3 Lead and lead alloys

22.4 Magnesium and magnesium alloys

Mechanical properties at room and elevated temperatures - Creep - Fatigue - Impact - Heat treatments

Standard specifications - Mechanical properties at room, elevated and

cryogenic temperatures - Fatigue - Creep

Specifications - Mechanical properties at room, elevated and low

temperatures - Creep - Fatigue - Impact

Mechanical properties at room temperature

Mechanical properties at room and elevated temperatures

22.5 Nickel and nickel alloys

22.6 Titanium and titanium alloys

22.7 Zinc and zinc alloys

22.8 Zirconium and zirconium alloys

22.9 Tin and its alloys

22.10 Steels

Mechanical properties forged and rolled room temperature - Micro

alloyed - Hot tensile - Fatigue - Creep - Sub zero - Tool steels

22.11 Other metals of industrial importance

22.12 Bearing metals

22-1

22-26

2248

22-5 1

22-65

22-82

22-94

22-94

22-96

22-100

22-159

22-162

23 Sintered materials

23.1 The PM process

23.2 The products

23.3 Manufacture and properties of powders

23.4 Properties of powder compacts

23.5 Sintering

23.6 Ferrous components

23.7 Copper based components

23.8 Aluminium components

23.10 Mechanical properties of sintered components

23.11 Heat treatment of sintered steels

23.12 Case hardening of sintered steels

23.13 Steam treatments

23.14 Wrought PM materials

23.15 Spray forming

23.16 Injection moulding

22.17 Hard metals

23-1

23-1

23-1

23-2

234

23-4

23-7

23-1 1

23-1 1

23-12

23-14

23-14

23-22

23-22

23-26

23-27

23-28

24 Lubricants

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Friction, wear and boundary lubrication

24.3 Characteristics of lubricating oils

Viscosity - Boundary lubrication - Chemical stability - Physical

properties

24.4 Mineral oils

24-1

24-1

24-1

24-2

24-3

24.5

24.6

24.7

24.8

24.9

Emulsions

Water-based lubricants

Synthetic oils

Greases

Oil additives

Contents xi

24-6

24-6

24-6

24-8

24-10

25 Friction and wear 25-1

25.1 Friction 25-1

Unlubricated - Static - Very hard solids - Sliding - Polymers -

Lubricated surfaces

Definitions - Wear resistant materials - Materials for abrasion

resistance - Wear rates - Hardfacings - Ceramics - Carbide composites -

Wear performance - Erosive wear - Cavitation erosion

25.2 Wear 25-9

26 Casting alloys and foundry data 261

26.1

26.2

26.3

26.4

26.5

26.6

26.7

26.8

26.9

Casting techniques

Patterns - Crucibles - Fluxing

Contraction allowances - Materials - Dressings - Fluxing and

inoculation

Aluminium alloys

Copper base alloys

Nickel base alloys

Magnesium alloys

Zinc base alloys

Steel castings

Casting characteristics - Heat treatment - Typical properties -

Pressure purposes - Weldable tubes - Aerospace - Investment cast

Classification - Typical analysis - Properties - Pig irons - Alloying

elements - Microconstituents - Malleable iron - Nodular iron - Compacted iron - Special purpose irons

Cast irons

26-1

26-10

26-20

26-32

26-44

2648

2660

26-62

26-74

27 Engineering ceramics and refractory materials 27-1

27.1

27.2

27.3

27.4

27.5

27.6

27.7

27.8

Physical and mechanical properties of engineering ceramics

Prepared but unshaped refractory materials

Aluminous cements

Castable materials

Mouldable materials

Ramming materials

Gunning materials

Design of refractory linings

27-1

27-6

27-7

27-12

27-12

27-12

27-12

27-12

28 Fuels 28-1

28.1 Coal

28.2 Metallurgical cokes

28.3 Gaseous fuels, liquid fuels and energy requirements

Liquid fuels - Gaseous fuels - Energy data

28-1

28-9

28-15

xii Contents

29 Heat treatment 29-1

29.1

29.2

29.3

29.4

29.5

29.6

29.7

29.8

Chemistry of controlled atmosphere processes 29-1

Heat treatment equipment 29-5

Steel - Normalizing - Hardening - Case hardening - Carburizing - Nitriding 29-7

Cast iron - Malleabilizing - Nodular 29-17

Aluminium alloys - Annealing - Stabilizing - Hardening 29-17

Copper alloys - Environments - Annealing - Stress relief 29-20

29-21

Nickel and cobalt alloys 29-23 Magnesium alloys - Safety - Environment - Casting alloys

30 Laser metal working

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Lasers - Basic principles

30.3 Process considerations

30.4 Cutting

30.5 Drilling and engraving

30.6 Welding

30.7 Transformation hardening

30.8 Surface cladding and alloying

30.9 Safety

30.10 Bibliography

30-1

30-1

30-1

304

30-7

3&9

30-10

30-12

30-13

30-13

3&14

-

31 Guide to corrosion control

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Bimetallic corrosion

31.3 Crevice corrosion

31.4 Corrosion/erosion resistant materials

31.5 Cavitation

31.6 Corrosion fatigue

31.7 Stress corrosion cracking

3 1.8 Hydrogen embrittlement

3 1.9 Fracture toughness under corrosive conditions

31.10 Atmospheric corrosion

31.11 High temperature oxidation resistance

31.12 Contact corrosion

Types - Environments - Accelerating factors

31-1

31-1

31-3

31-5

31-5

31-6

31-8

31-7

31-9

31-10

31-12

31-13

31-13

32 Electroplating and metal finishing

32.1 Polishing compositions

32.2 Cleaning and pickling processes

32.3 Anodizing and plating processes

32.4 Electroplating process

32.5

32.6 Electroplating process parameters

32.7 Miscellaneous coating processes

32.8 Plating formulae for non-conducting surfaces

32.9 Methods of stripping electroplated coatings

32.10 Conversion coating processes

Phosphating - Chromating - Colouring

32.11 Glossary of trade names for coating processes

Plating processes for magnesium alloys

32-1

32-1

32-2

32-7

32-9

32-17

32-18

32-19

32-20

32-21

32-22

32-24

Contents xiii

33 Welding 33-1

33.1 Introduction

33.2 Glossary of welding terms

33.3 Resistance welding

33.4 Friction welding

33.5 Fusion welding

33.6 British standards relating to welding

33-1

33-1

33-5

33-10

33-13

33-40

34 Soldering and brazing

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Quality assurance

34.3 Soldering

34.4 Brazing

34.5 Bibliography

34-1

341

34-1

34-2

34-9

34-14

35 Vapoar deposited coatings

35.1 Physical vapour deposition

35.2 Chemical vapour deposition

Evaporation - Sputter plating - Ion cleaning

Elements - Oxides - Nitrides - Carbides

35-1

35-1

35-2

36 Superplasticity 36-1

Non-ferrous systems - Iron and steel systems - Powdered material

systems

37 Metal-matrix composites 37-1

Index I- 1