Shipping and the enviroment : Improving environmental performance in marine transportation

Karin Andersson · Selma Brynolf

J. Fredrik Lindgren

Magda Wilewska-Bien Editors

Shipping

and the

Environment

Improving Environmental Performance

in Marine Transportation

Shipping and the Environment

Karin Andersson • Selma Brynolf

J. Fredrik Lindgren • Magda Wilewska-Bien

Editors

Shipping and the

Environment

Improving Environmental Performance

in Marine Transportation

123

Editors

Karin Andersson

Shipping and Marine Technology

Chalmers University of Technology

Gothenburg

Sweden

Selma Brynolf

Shipping and Marine Technology

Chalmers University of Technology

Gothenburg

Sweden

J. Fredrik Lindgren

Shipping and Marine Technology

Chalmers University of Technology

Gothenburg

Sweden

Magda Wilewska-Bien

Shipping and Marine Technology

Chalmers University of Technology

Gothenburg

Sweden

ISBN 978-3-662-49043-3 ISBN 978-3-662-49045-7 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-49045-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015959585

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part

of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,

recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission

or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar

methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this

publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from

the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this

book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the

authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or

for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by SpringerNature

The registered company is Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin Heidelberg

Foreword

This book provides a timely and focused contribution to broader understanding of

environmental impacts and pollution prevention measures of maritime transport. As

a researcher and colleague in the interdisciplinary effort to help identify, charac￾terise, and address compelling challenges with regard to maritime vessel operations,

I thank the editors and commend the authors and contributors for their timely and

carefully developed text.

Readers may think I was invited to contribute this foreword because of two

decades work pioneering research in several areas that are now mature enough to

merit chapters in modern maritime texts such as these. Perhaps that explanation

works. However, this foreword may also be considered as the reflections of a sailor,

a merchant marine engineering officer, whose original training included how to

operate very few devices designed primarily for pollution control. One of them was

an engine-room periscope that could view a light bulb through a boiler stack only if

the visible smoke was minimised. “The smoke periscope is a simple arrangement of

mirrors and a light bulb which shines across the uptakes, giving the operator an

indication of the opacity of the combustion gasses. It is difficult to distinguish

between white and black smoke with the periscope” (source: Massachusetts Mer￾chant Marine Academy training manual, circa 1986–99). In fact, the ability to

minimise smoke was also a means to achieving more complete combustion, thereby

improving fuel consumption. In retrospect, my research as a science and technology

policy analyst focused on twenty-first-century innovation in maritime and freight

systems is bound to those few years operating the world’s largest moving power

plants aboard merchant ships at the start of my career.

Similarly, this text connects shipping and maritime operations with current

scientific, policy, and technology knowledge about our natural environment. The

book may appeal to the next generation of maritime professionals, some who may

staff watch aboard a new fleet of ships designed for environmental stewardship as

well as economic service under challenging and changing sea conditions. The

chapters may inform you scientists working to understand changing ocean and

coastal environments where the impacts of shipping are part of the ambient con￾ditions they observe. The text may also serve as a launching point for policy makers

and maritime business leaders looking to navigate global shipping towards cleaner

seas, skies, and shorelines. Mutual understanding is needed among those who

v

design and operate integrated systems aboard ships and those who care about the

coupled natural–human systems in our world.

Students and professionals using this text may share at least one attribute: the

motivation to act upon good information to achieve better understanding and

improve performance. This text is designed to assist today’s mariners, environ￾mental scientists, and regulatory administrators in this regard. By connecting a brief

historic overview of shipping and environment with some fundamental introduction

to environmental impacts, the book introduces pollution prevention measures

focused on energy efficiency, discharge and emission controls, and tools for better

environmental management.

One thing is certainly different since my days operating ship power systems: It is

no longer sufficient to view environmental stewardship through a periscope.

Today’s professionals will see a changing ocean system, affected by increasing

human activity along coastlines and shipping lanes. Some of us will witness and

others of us will invent new and better ship systems that safely deliver cargoes with

better attention to environmental stewardship. And these innovations will partly

depend upon policy signals that identify the needs for timely new achievements in

ship performance, port operations, and the world supply chains. This text con￾tributes to a better understanding of shipping and environment, and expands the

horizons for twenty-first-century shipping.

James J. Corbett Ph.D.,

Professor of Marine Science and Policy

Former Merchant Marine Officer, and Graduate of the California

Maritime Academy

vi Foreword

Preface

How come we wrote a book? I guess this is what you ask yourself when a large

manuscript is ready for print. I have seen colleagues write textbooks a number of

times during my years as a university teacher. Each time I have concluded that

book-writing is a very large and time-consuming challenge and I have promised

myself that I will never do it. Still—now the book is obviously there, and in some

way it has happened. One conclusion is that you should not try to write a book on

your own—the combined work of a group is what drives the work forward,

increases quality, and provides challenging discussions. This book is really a

cooperative project that has grown more or less by itself, although I do not know if

we all tell the same story of how it started.

The writing process was initiated by the need for a textbook to be used in

courses at the department of Shipping and Marine Technology. Furthermore, we

had a need to meet the demand of providing information and answering questions

from shipping companies and authorities. Before starting the main work, we had the

opportunity to perform a “verification project” where we made a survey of need in

target groups among students as well as in the shipping industry.

A book on shipping and the environment will involve a large number of dis￾ciplines and competences. The diversity in research focus and expertise of the

people working at the department of Shipping and Marine Technology at Chalmers

and at the department of Law at Gothenburg University was a good starting con￾dition. The authors come from many different scientific backgrounds; engineers of

different disciplines, marine scientists as well as scientists working with legal

research, and we have all learnt a lot from each other during the project. The efforts

in writing texts as well as in reading and discussing other author’s text are greatly

acknowledged. Thanks to all my co-authors.

There are also a number of people who have been reading parts of the text and

been providing specific expertise and input. Thank you all.

Special thanks to my co-editors, Selma Brynolf, Fredrik Lindgren, and Magda

Wilewska-Bien, for their never-ending patience and ambition in making the

manuscript consistent and correct and also in gently reminding the rest of us that it

is time to deliver. You are the heroes of the book project.

Important prerequisites for the book have been the Lighthouse maritime com￾petence centre and the Chalmers Area of Advance Transport. The Lighthouse

vii

funding for senior scientists and doctorate students as well as the contribution to

funding of senior scientists from the Area of Advance has given us the possibility to

work on the manuscript. In the “verification project”, we got practical support and

funding by Innovationskontor Väst (Chalmers Innovation Office).

So, finally, when summer is over and the autumn storms are approaching the

Swedish west coast, the manuscript is ready for print. We all hope that it will turn

out to be useful to the readers and contribute to make shipping at least a little more

sustainable.

Gothenburg Karin Andersson

September 2015

viii Preface

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank a number of professionals from both Chalmers

University of Technology and other places who generously gave their time and

provided comments on the draft chapters and draft sections of the book including

Gabriela Argüello (University of Gothenburg), Göran Bark (Chalmers University of

Technology), Rickard Bensow (Chalmers University of Technology), Josefin Borg

(Chalmers University of Technology), Francesco Di Natale (University of Naples),

Erik Fridell (IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute), Maria Grahn

(Chalmers University of Technology), Paul Gilbert (The University of Manchester),

Linus Hammar (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management), Mathias

Janssen (Chalmers University of Technology), Roger Karlsson (SSPA), Niclas

Karlsson (Cleanship Scandinavia), Henrik Pahlm (Chalmers University of Tech￾nology), Erik Røsæg (University of Oslo), Aslak Suopanki (Wärtsilä), and Erik

Ytreberg (Chalmers University of Technology). The contribution of Andreas

Hanning (Chalmers University of Technology) to the initial discussion, reviewing

parts of the book and performing the verification study on creating the educational

material, is acknowledged. The authors thank Ida-Maja Hassellöv (Chalmers

University of Technology), for contribution to the initial discussions, defining the

scope of the book and providing comments on parts of the book.

The authors thank Manuel Frias Vega (HELCOM) for adjusting the map of the

maritime traffic in the Baltic Sea.

The authors acknowledge Caroline Pamp (Chalmers University of Technology),

Marje Berzins (Chalmers University of Technology) and Jonas Gilbert (Chalmers

University of Technology) who provided assistance with legal aspects. Further￾more, gratitude for sharing advice and experiences regarding textbook writing goes

to Madeleine Miller and Katarina Streiffert (University of Gothenburg).

Sincere gratitude goes to various organisations and institutions for giving the

authors permission to print some graphical material in the book.

The authors are grateful to Innovationskontor Väst for financing the verification

project and Bo Norrman (Innovationskontor Väst) for valuable discussions on

utilisation of research.

The Lighthouse base funding for senior scientists as well as for doctorate stu￾dents together with base support from the Chalmers Area of Advance Transport has

given us the opportunity to work on the manuscript.

ix

Contents

Part I Introduction

1 Shipping and the Environment .......................... 3

Karin Andersson, Francesco Baldi, Selma Brynolf,

J. Fredrik Lindgren, Lena Granhag and Erik Svensson

1.1 Man and the Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2 Ships and Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2.1 The Infrastructure: Fairways, Canals and Ports . . . . . . 7

1.2.2 Marine Spatial Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2.3 What Types of Cargo Are Transported by Ships,

and Where Is the Cargo Transported? . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.3 Sustainability and Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.3.1 Sustainability and Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . 10

1.3.2 What Is an Environmental Concern? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.3.3 Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.3.4 Planetary Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.3.5 Resilience Thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.4 Ships and Their Environmental Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.4.1 A Ship’s Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.4.2 The Hull and Ship Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.4.3 The Propulsion System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.4.4 Hotel Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.4.5 Auxiliary Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.5 Sustainability Challenges for the Maritime Industry. . . . . . . . . 24

2 The Natural Environment and Human Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

J. Fredrik Lindgren, Kent Salo, Selma Brynolf, Karin Andersson,

Erik Svensson, Maria Zetterdahl, Lena Granhag

and Mathias Magnusson

2.1 The Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.1.1 Hydrological Cycle—The Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.1.2 Chemical and Physical Properties of Water. . . . . . . . . 32

2.1.3 Oceanography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

xi

2.2 The Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.2.1 The Structure and the Composition

of the Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.2.2 Radiation and Energy Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2.2.3 Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

2.3 The Geosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.4 The Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2.4.1 Primary Production and Food Chains. . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2.4.2 Living in Sea Water—Implications

for Marine Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.5 Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.5.1 The Sulphur Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.5.2 The Nitrogen Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.5.3 The Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

2.6 Energy Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.6.1 Fossil Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.6.2 Renewable Energy Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

2.7 Human Impacts and Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

2.7.1 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.7.2 Loss of Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.7.3 Chemical Pollution and the Release

of Novel Entities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

2.7.4 Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

2.7.5 Ocean Acidification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

2.7.6 Freshwater Consumption and the Global

Hydrological Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

2.7.7 Land System Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

2.7.8 Alteration of Biogeochemical Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

2.7.9 Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

2.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3 Regulating Pollution from Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Philip Linné and Erik Svensson

3.1 A Short History of the Regulation of Ship Operations . . . . . . . 77

3.2 The History of the Regulation of Pollution from Ships . . . . . . 78

3.3 The Legal Framework for Regulating Pollution from Ships . . . 82

3.3.1 An Introduction to the International Law Context . . . . 82

3.3.2 An Introduction to the Law of the Sea Context. . . . . . 84

3.3.3 Links Between the LOSC and the Role

of IMO in the Regulation of Pollution from Ships. . . . 91

3.3.4 An Introduction to MARPOL 73/78

and its Annexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

3.3.5 Other International Agreements Regulating

Pollution from Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

xii Contents

3.4 The Role of IMO in the Regulation of Pollution from Ships. . . 101

3.4.1 Functions and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

3.4.2 An Overview of Actors at IMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

3.5 An Introduction to the Crafting of International Agreements. . . 110

3.5.1 Basic International Agreement Terminology . . . . . . . . 112

3.5.2 The Crafting of IMO Conventions on Pollution

from Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Part II Environmental Impacts

4 Discharges to the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

J. Fredrik Lindgren, Magda Wilewska-Bien, Lena Granhag,

Karin Andersson and K. Martin Eriksson

4.1 Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

4.1.1 Discharges of Oil from Shipping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

4.1.2 Behaviour of Oil Spills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

4.1.3 Impacts of Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

4.1.4 Costs Related to Petroleum Contamination . . . . . . . . . 139

4.2 Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

4.2.1 Origin and Characteristics of the Wastewater

Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

4.2.2 Environmental Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

4.2.3 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

4.3 Fouling, Ship Hull Penalties and Antifouling Paint . . . . . . . . . 145

4.3.1 Antifouling Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

4.3.2 Non-metal-Based Booster Biocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

4.3.3 Metal-Based Booster Biocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

4.3.4 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

4.4 Ballast Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

4.4.1 Background and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

4.4.2 Ecosystem Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

4.4.3 Estimated Costs and Societal Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

4.4.4 Human Health Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

4.4.5 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

4.4.6 Ballast Water Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

4.5 Marine Litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

4.5.1 Impacts of Marine Litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

4.5.2 Economic Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

4.5.3 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Contents xiii

5 Emissions to the Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Kent Salo, Maria Zetterdahl, Hannes Johnson, Erik Svensson,

Mathias Magnusson, Cecilia Gabrielii and Selma Brynolf

5.1 Marine Diesel Engines and Emission Formation . . . . . . . . . . . 174

5.1.1 Marine Diesel Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

5.1.2 Combustion Process in Diesel Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . 176

5.1.3 Thermochemistry Related to Combustion

in Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

5.2 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

5.2.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

5.2.2 Human and Environmental Implications . . . . . . . . . . . 181

5.2.3 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

5.3 Sulphur Oxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

5.3.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

5.3.2 Transboundary Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

5.3.3 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

5.4 Nitrogen Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

5.4.1 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

5.4.2 Human and Environmental Implications . . . . . . . . . . . 196

5.4.3 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

5.5 Particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

5.5.1 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

5.5.2 Human and Environmental Implications . . . . . . . . . . . 208

5.5.3 Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

5.6 Volatile Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

5.6.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

5.6.2 Human and Environmental Implications . . . . . . . . . . . 212

5.6.3 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

5.7 Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)—Refrigerants . . . . . . . . . 213

5.7.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

5.7.2 Human and Environmental Implications . . . . . . . . . . . 215

5.7.3 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

6 Anthropogenic Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

J. Fredrik Lindgren and Magda Wilewska-Bien

6.1 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

6.1.1 Underwater Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

6.1.2 Noise from Port Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

7 Infrastructure, Marine Spatial Planning and Shipwrecks . . . . . . . 237

J. Fredrik Lindgren, Karin Andersson and Hanna Landquist

7.1 Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

7.2 Fairways and Canals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

xiv Contents

7.3 Dredging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

7.4 Ship Construction and Scrapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

7.4.1 Design Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

7.4.2 Manufacturing Phase and Shipyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

7.4.3 Operational Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

7.4.4 Scrapping of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

7.4.5 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

7.5 Shipwrecks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

7.5.1 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

7.6 Marine Spatial Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

7.6.1 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Part III Pollution Prevention Measures

8 Environmental Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Karin Andersson

8.1 What Is Environmental Management? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

8.2 Strategies in Environmental Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

8.3 Environmental Management Systems and Standards . . . . . . . . 260

8.4 Environmental Reporting and the Global Reporting

Initiative (GRI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

9 Methods and Tools for Environmental Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Karin Andersson, Selma Brynolf, Hanna Landquist

and Erik Svensson

9.1 Principles of Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

9.2 Environmental Systems Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

9.3 Procedural Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

9.3.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) . . . . . 269

9.3.2 Scenario Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

9.3.3 Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) . . . . . . . . . 273

9.3.4 Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

9.4 Analytical Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

9.4.1 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

9.4.2 Material Flow Analysis (MFA) and Substance

Flow Analysis (SFA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

9.4.3 Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) . . . . . . . . . . . 280

9.4.4 Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

9.4.5 Life Cycle Costing (LCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Contents xv

9.5 Aggregated Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

9.5.1 Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

9.5.2 Indices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

9.5.3 Footprints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

10 Energy Efficiency and Fuel Changes to Reduce

Environmental Impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Selma Brynolf, Francesco Baldi and Hannes Johnson

10.1 Energy Efficiency Potential and the Energy Efficiency Gap . . . 297

10.2 Improving Energy Efficiency from a Design Perspective . . . . . 299

10.2.1 Reducing Ship Energy Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

10.2.2 Improving the Energy Efficiency of Converters

and Transmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

10.2.3 Using Additional Renewable Energy Sources . . . . . . . 310

10.3 Improving Energy Efficiency from an Operational

Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

10.3.1 The Assessed Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

10.3.2 The Role of Ship Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

10.3.3 Improved Energy-Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . 315

10.4 Fuel Changes to Reduce Environmental Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . 318

10.4.1 Criteria for Future Marine Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

10.4.2 Present and Possible Future Marine Fuels. . . . . . . . . . 323

10.4.3 Life Cycle Assessment of Marine Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . 331

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

11 Measures to Reduce Discharges and Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

Magda Wilewska-Bien, J. Fredrik Lindgren, Mathias Magnusson,

Maria Zetterdahl, Kent Salo, Cecilia Gabrielii, Lena Granhag

and Selma Brynolf

11.1 Remediation of Oil Spills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

11.1.1 Techniques Used at Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

11.1.2 Techniques Used on Shores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

11.1.3 Treatment of Bilge Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

11.2 Antifouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

11.2.1 Non-toxic Antifouling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

11.2.2 Areas of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

11.3 Ballast Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

11.3.1 Mechanical and Physical Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

11.3.2 Treatment Methods Using Chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

11.3.3 Other Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

11.4 Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

11.5 Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

11.6 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

xvi Contents